Welcome to Gardening in South Africa!

Bee foraging. Image by Jürgen from PixabayGlobally many city and town planners are recognising the importance of planting mini greenbelts that support vital pollinators like bees. Sadly in South Africa this is not the case, making it vital for gardeners to plant pollinator plants. Having a bee-friendly garden is not only important for the survival of this important species it’s also easy to do.

Globally many city and town planners are recognising the importance of planting mini greenbelts that support vital pollinators like bees. Sadly in South Africa this is not the case, making it vital for gardeners to plant pollinator plants. Having a bee-friendly garden is not only important for the survival of this important species it’s also easy to do.

Insects are a vital part of the world’s ecosystems, but sadly, in many parts of the world bees and other pollinators like butterflies, are in decline. Today more than 40% of the world’s insect populations are declining, with more than a third of all insects now recognised as being endangered. Despite being one of the most loved and charismatic of insects, bees have not escaped this decline. There are many reasons for this, including the loss of their natural habitats due to the spread of cities and towns, and modern agricultural techniques.

Town planners across the globe now recognise the importance and the advantages of planting forage plants for pollinators of all kinds, and carefully selected nectar and pollen-rich plants are planted in large swathes in cities and suburban settings to create mini greenbelts to support these vital pollinators. These green belts will also become home to many other small animals and birds.

London Rooftop Garden Image by Frank Nürnberger from PixabayRoof Gardens

Roof gardens are becoming the norm, and these elevated green spaces provide urban greening to create habitats for pollinators. Greening provides insulation, mitigating the urban ‘heat island’ effect, and also improves air quality and manages storm water runoff.

The urban heat island (UHI) effect is a phenomenon where cities experience significantly higher temperatures, up to 5 or even 10°C higher than surrounding rural areas. This is caused by heat-absorbing materials like concrete and asphalt, sparse vegetation, and waste heat from human activity. Urban heat islands can pose severe health risks and increases energy demand. Increased vegetation provides insulation, reducing the need for heating and cooling, with some roofs reducing indoor ambient temperatures by an average of 3°C, slashing air conditioner usage by up to 40%.

Underutilized rooftops can be turned in beautiful recreational spaces, or even productive urban farms. Rooftop beekeeping is another growing urban trend where hives are often situated on high-rise buildings. Because this method requires specialized management, such as planting pollinator friendly plants to boost biodiversity and support pollinators, using docile bee breeds and securing water sources, projects must be managed with the help of professional urban apiarists. Rooftop apiaries are frequently used by restaurants and other companies to demonstrate sustainability and to produce local honey.

Rooftop gardens require careful structural planning, waterproofing, and containerised planting.

Vertical Gardens

Urban wildflower gardens are trending for all the right reasons and vertical gardens, also called “green walls”, provide exciting possibilities to create habitats for pollinators, and like roof gardens, they also provide insulation, and improve air quality.

Vertical gardens can be large or small but this space-saving technique is ideal for growing plants in small spaces, patios, and balcony gardens.  Vertical gardens are usually supported against a wall, trellis, or fence, and used for everything from small pots and soil-filled bags to high-tech planters. They can feature decorative greenery, vegetables, herbs, or flowers on even the tiniest deck.

A vertical garden can be as simple as planting up some hanging baskets, or installing a trellis or archway for plants to grow up. Many systems use sustainable materials, such as felt pockets that maintain moisture, reducing water usage, and which can be mounted against a wall or hung-over fences and gates.

Bees need shelter. Image by thomas wilfert from PixabayCreate a bee-friendly garden

In South Africa there are more than 1000 different bee species and they are all vital in sustaining our natural biodiversity. Bees pollinate the plants that produce much of the food we eat, and they also pollinate the wild flowers that feed the other insects that fuel the food chain.

Sadly in South Africa many of our public parks are not maintained and often sprayed indiscriminately with dangerous poisons which can decimate pollinators and other wildlife. This makes it even more urgent that gardeners plant pollinator plants.

As gardeners we owe a lot to these hard-working pollinators, and simply adding bee-friendly garden plants and other creature-friendly elements to your garden helps to cultivate a biodiverse environment in our cities and towns.  By helping bees we’re helping wildlife – and ourselves.

The more people we have creating these pollinator-friendly green spaces in cities and towns, the more these green spaces start working together, helping wildlife to thrive and move between habitats within these areas. As your pollinator garden grows you will be surprised at how quickly pollinators like bees appear, and knowing their plight, there is no better sound than a garden alive with the sound of buzzing bees.

In their early stages of development bees are vulnerable and cannot fend for themselves, so they seek protection from the environment. Wild bees will nest in a hollow tree trunk, a crack in a wall or even a chimney or pool filter box.

Bee Hotel Image by Annette Meyer from PixabayConsider adding a bee hotel where solitary bees can shelter in your garden. These attractive wooden structures are widely available and make a wonderful addition to wildlife gardens.

Honeybees need a sheltering hive or place to nest, and for commercial fruit or vegetable crops
cultivated bees make it possible to move them to areas where they are required for pollination services.

If bees make a nest in your garden and you have to remove them, please contact a professional who will remove the nest and the bees without harming them.

What do Honeybees Eat?

Honeybees prefer plants that produce both nectar and pollen. When they forage, they feed directly on nectar which provides energy in the form of carbohydrates. The pollen that they collect while foraging is rich in protein, vitamins, and minerals.

A healthy hive requires access to high pollen and nectar yielding flowers all year round, and especially in winter. The healthier the bees are the better they will fare against diseases and toxins that can harm or kill them.

Pesticides can be very harmful and should never be used near hives or on forage plants. If you need to spray other plants in the garden, purchase eco-friendly sprays, and follow the directions carefully. Make sure that you spray when insect activity is at its lowest.

Bees need water. Image by xiSerge from PixabayHoneybees need water

Honeybees and other bee species need more than just flowers to survive, they also need a source of water, preferably not too far away from the hive.  During dry spells in summer or winter, offer fresh water in any shallow container.

Plants which attract bees and other pollinators

Anyone with access to an outdoor space, large or small, can create a place where bees can feed, even a balcony garden will do. All garden wildlife, including bees thrive in gardens that are a bit on the wild side as they offer plenty of spaces to shelter in.

There are many exotic and indigenous plants that you can use. Naturally, using as many indigenous plants as you can is always best, and with South Africa’s extraordinary plant diversity there is a huge selection of trees, shrubs and lower-growing perennial and annual species to choose from. If you select indigenous species native to your region, in either the winter or summer-rainfall regions of the country, they will be water-wise too, requiring little to no watering during the dry season.

To grow a year-round bee larder, choose plants that flower at different times of year and those with a long flowering season.  Choose scented flowers as this helps bees locate flowers for food from further away. However, bees can be particular about the kind of smell that a flower emits, and prefer sweet-smelling flowers over musty or spicy smelling ones.

Select flowers that have not been hybridised, as many hybrid plants are selected to look spectacular with double or triple rows of petals, but sadly in breeding for traits that humans adore other traits like scent can be lost, and all those extra rows of petals replaces the flower’s ability to produce the male flower parts that hold pollen, inhibits access to nectar, and in many cases even the production of nectar.

Bees love large swathes of the same plant. Image by Jean van der Meulen from PixabayBees can fly up to 2km looking for food, but the further they fly, the more important it becomes that the worker bees reserve enough energy to get back to the hive again. Therefore, to conserve energy searching for scattered flowers, they prefer to visit larger groups of flowers of the same kind in the garden. If you have a medium to large garden, make it worth their while to travel to your garden by planting swathes of the same plant. Mass plantings also create colourful displays that really pop in the garden.

Because honey bees prefer to forage on crops with large numbers of identical flowers beekeepers often reject the idea of small gardens for honey bees. But this is not necessarily true as the flying force of any colony comprises or scouts who search for pollen and nectar, and foragers who collect it. Incredibly, some recent research shows that, depending on the time of year, up to 25% of the foragers in a single colony may be scouts whose job it is to discover large swaths forage plants to feed the colony.

To find those treasures, the scouts clock many miles on their wings, and periodically, they need to rest, refuel, and rehydrate, just like a trucker on an endless freeway, honey bees need a pit stop, something you can provide with a miniature bee garden. In small gardens, try to select plants that bloom for a long time.

Research suggests that generally bees prefer blue, purple, and yellow flowers. However, there are exceptions such as orange Aloe flowers, and the white flowers of the White Pear which are also highly sought after.

Pay attention to what bees are feeding on in your garden and suburb, and which ones they seem to love the most, and plant more of those. You could even use your pavement or sidewalk to plant bee friendly plants, shrubs and even shade trees.

The same principles apply for small gardens or a large tracts of land, such as those managed by landscapers, landscape architects, golf-course managers, estate managers and even office parks.

Keep posted as I am currently working on bee friendly plant lists to inspire you, and which will include annuals and edibles, groundcovers and small bee plants, as well as shrubs and trees to attract pollinators.

Picture courtesy Michael Coghlan see his flickr pageIf you yearn to grow your own fruit at home but think that your garden is too small, you’ll be delighted to know that at last South African gardeners have a good selection of dwarf fruit trees to choose from, and now double and triple grafted trees are appearing on the market.

I hope this article will inspire you to incorporate fruit trees into your garden landscape. All it takes is a bit of research on your part in order to identify the best fruit trees and varieties for your climatic region. This, together with the correct care and a little cooperation with mother-nature will ensure success, and when you take that first bite you will remember how fruit used to taste when you were a child - the way sun-ripened fruit really should taste – incredibly sweet and juicy!  And you don’t need an entire orchard to grow your own fruit, if space is limited, spoil yourself with just few of your favourite varieties.

Description & Interesting Facts:

Years ago, in countries like the USA, Europe and Australia, some innovative fruit growers developed methods to induce a single fruit tree rootstock to bear several different types of fruits, by using multiple grafts. Trees created by this technique were marketed as “Fruit Salad Trees” and they created quite a stir, enabling gardeners with small spaces to grow a variety of fruits in a single corner of the garden, trained as espalier, or planted in pots.  

The trick to creating a multiple fruit-bearing tree is to graft several compatible varieties or species onto the same rootstock. Most fruit trees are compatible within their species, but many are also compatible within their genus. That means that Prunus species such as plums, nectarines and peaches can be grafted onto the same tree, and why many types of citrus can be combined on a single rootstock.

Fruit Salad Trees can grow up to six different types of fruit, all on one tree. All the fruits will produce the same sized fruit as a standard tree, retaining their own characteristics like flavour, appearance and ripening times.

Dwarf, Double and Triple Grafted Fruit Trees

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Apple Dwarf ‘Early Red’

The Dwarf Early Red Apple is an exciting new dwarf suitable for small gardens, container planting, or a small orchard. The tree can grow to a height of 3.5m and has beautiful pink and white blossoms in late September, and the fruit ripens from late February to early March. Apple trees are not self-fertile, requiring a second variety to cross-pollinate them and enable fruit production. Golden Delicious or Granny Smith both make good pollinators.

Apple Dwarf ‘Golden Delicious’

The Dwarf Golden Delicious is a popular variety producing sweet, crisp and golden-coloured apples. As a dwarf variety, this tree grows to a maximum of 3m, making it ideal for small gardens or container planting. It has a moderate growth rate and usually starts bearing fruit one year after planting. The fruit has a sweet, mild flavour with a hint of honey, perfect for fresh eating, baking, and sauces. They start flowering around early October and ready to harvest late February, early March. Apple trees are not self-fertile requiring a second variety to cross pollinate. Granny Smith or Early Red cross-pollinate Golden Delicious.

Apple Dwarf ‘Granny Smith’

Dwarf Granny Smith apple trees have been grafted onto dwarf M9 rootstock which is very productive, and trees will bear fruit 1 year after planting. Due to the rootstock used, the tree can grow up to 3m tall with a width of 1m. This makes it an ideal tree for any garden. The white blossoms appear in late September, and the fruit will ripen in late summer, February/March. Dwarf Granny Smith is great to grow in pots, and because the trees can be planted close together, they make an ideal apple tree hedge. They can even be espaliered against a wall or fence. These apple trees are self-fertile but will perform better with a different variety.

Cherry Dwarf ‘Lapins’

Lapins Cherry trees originated in British Columbia, Canada and are loved for their gorgeous mahogany red skin and delicious sweet flavour. The white blossoms appear in mid-September, and the fruit ripens in November. These trees have been grafted onto dwarf MXM14 rootstock, which is very productive. Due to the rootstock used, the tree can grow up to 3m high with a width of 2m, making Dwarf Lapins an ideal tree for home gardens and urban orchards. The trees are self-fertile and do not need another variety for cross-pollination.

Kumquat Dwarf ‘Meiwa’

The Meiwa Kumquat is a small, round citrus fruit. The thin and edible skin adds a slight chewiness, and it’s surprisingly sweet and somewhat syrupy, complementing the fruit’s tangy flesh. It can be enjoyed fresh, eaten whole, or used in various culinary applications, such as marmalades, salads, and desserts. This tree grows to a height of between 1.5 and 2m, growing well in garden beds or pots. Kumquats typically flower in the summer and their fruit ripens from late summer and autumn, or from winter to early spring, depending on the specific climate and tree. The long-lasting fruit can hang on the tree for months, providing a decorative and edible display throughout the cooler season. 

Orange Dwarf Calamondin

The Calamondin Orange has gained popularity across the world for its versatility and because it is easy to grow and is hardier too cold than any other citrus. The tree is a cross between a kumquat and a mandarin orange and the small orange fruit resembles a small tangerine. The peel is thin, yellow to orange and easily separable. The fruit has a very sweet smell but a slightly sour taste, whereas the skin is surprisingly sweet. This dwarf orange tree can grow to a height of between 1.5 and 2m tall and the plant performs very well as a patio plant or even trimmed as a hedge. Calamondins can flower and fruit year-round making them magnificent ornamentals; and their showy orange fruits are eaten fresh or used in sweet and savoury dishes.

Mandarin Naartjie Dwarf

This Dwarf Mandarin Naartjie is technically a Nova Mandarin, and the relatively small fruits are sweet, juicy and delicious, and sometimes referred to as ‘kid-glove naartjies’.  The dwarf trees do not need to be pollinated by another tree and can bear fruit alone, and because they grow very easily in containers they are ideal for small gardens or patios. Depending on the soil, climate conditions and care, the trees can grow to a height of 2 to 3m tall. Container grown specimens will remain small but bear enough fruit for the family. In South Africa, mandarin naartjies flower in spring, with peak blooming generally from late winter to early spring. Different varieties have slightly different blooming and fruiting times, and these are also influenced by the specific climate of the region where they are grown. The harvesting season varies, but generally runs from late April or early May for very early varieties like Clementines, through the mid-season from June to September, and sometimes extending into October for late-season mandarins. 

Naartjie Dwarf ‘Nova’

The deep orange colour and distinctive sweetness of these medium-sized naartjies make them irresistible to fruit-lovers. The Nova Naartjie tends to have a thinner, tighter peel, so they are a little trickier to open than varieties with a loose skin. But, it’s well worth the extra effort for the delicious treat inside. Nova Naartjies are a cross between tangelo and clementine naartjies. The tree reaches a mature height of about 1.5m to 2m, and will do well in a pot with good drainage. Pick your gorgeous, sweet naartjies in May and June, when their skins are orange with no green on them.

Naartjie Dwarf 'Satsuma'

The Dwarf Satsuma Naartjie is sweet, juicy, delicious, and seedless. It grows easily in containers, making it ideal for homes with small gardens or patios. These trees do not require pollination by another tree and can produce fruit independently. Most dwarf satsumas are relatively slow-growing and have a spreading or drooping growth habit. Satsuma cultivars also stand out as the earliest ripening option among soft citrus fruits, and are harvested from mid-March to around the end of May. Dwarf varieties produce the same-sized fruit as standard Satsuma varieties, and the tree size will not affect the fruit yield. Pick your naartjies when they have turned from green to a beautiful orange colour.

Orange/Naartjie Double Grafted Tree

This double-grafted option is a standard-sized tree, with a grafted Naartjie and a grafted Orange. Your tree should produce oranges from April to September and naartjies from May to June. Prune the tree to your desired height to enable easier harvesting, and a good time to prune is once it stops fruiting. Remove branches in the middle of the tree to thin it out and allow sunlight in, this will also help control pests and diseases.

Lemon/Naartjie Double Grafted Tree

This combo is the best-of-two-worlds with a lemon and a naartjie grafted on one tree. This double-grafted option will grow into a standard-sized tree, with a grafted Eureka Lemon and a grafted Nova Naartjie. Your tree should produce Lemons from February to May and Mandarin naartjies between May and October. To enable easier harvesting prune the tree to your desired height once it stops fruiting. Remove branches in the middle of the tree to thin it out and allow sunlight in, this will also help control pests and diseases.

Lemon/Lime Double Grafted Tree

This duo will also tempt you as you have both lemons and limes on one tree. This double-grafted option is a standard-sized tree, with a grafted Eureka Lemon and a grafted Bear’s Lime. Your tree should give you fruit all year round. Limes from January and Lemons between February and July. To enable easier harvesting prune the tree to your desired height once it stops fruiting. Remove branches in the middle of the tree to thin it out and allow sunlight in, this will also help control pests and diseases.

Lime Dwarf 'Bears'

The Dwarf Bears Lime is also known as a Persian Lime. The tree will grow to a height of 1.5m to 2.5m. This evergreen has very few thorns and is prized for its oval vivid green fruit which has a glossy surface when immature, turning a pale-yellow colour when ripe, with a juicy light greenish-yellow pulp. Flowers and fruit develop throughout the year but are more abundant during winter. The slightly fragrant flowers with their long white petals shine against the evergreen glossy foliage.

Lemon Dwarf Rough Skin 

The Rough Skin Lemon is the first cultivar of lemon grown in South Africa. It has bumpy, uneven, thick skin and is popular for its juicier, sweeter flavour. Rough-Skin Lemon trees can withstand cold climates, but if you live in a very cold region, use a frost cover for the first couple of years. The dwarf rough skin lemon will grow to about 2m in height. Your lemons are ready to be picked when their skin has turned from green to yellow (or mostly yellow) and they come off the tree when lifted and twisted. Prune the tree to your desired height to enable easier harvest. A good time to prune your lemon tree is once it stops fruiting. Remove branches in the middle of the tree to thin it out as this will aid in pest and disease control.

Lemon Dwarf ‘Eureka’

Dwarf Eureka lemon trees are small and compact in size, and prolific in fruit production. They grow approximately 1.5 to 2m tall, and despite their small stature, the trees are remarkably easy to care for and maintain. They adapt well to container growing and require less pruning than their larger counterparts, making them ideal for novice gardeners. Lemons can be picked as needed and are typically ripe from late autumn through winter.

Lemon Dwarf ‘Lemonade’

The Dwarf Lemonade (Limoneira) lemon tree grows well in South Africa and has become one of our most popular and productive lemon varieties due to its robust growth, high oil content, and extended flowering period. Introduced to South Africa around 1998, it is known for its fewer seeds, medium-sized fruit, and suitability for processing and fresh use. The fruit is medium-sized, almost seedless, and has high oil content. These lemons are great for fresh use, and the skin is perfect for zesting. Dwarf varieties will produce the exact size of fruit as a standard tree, and crop yield is not restricted. Dwarf lemonade typically reaches a height of approximately 2m, making it perfect for container planting. Lemons can be picked as needed and are typically ripe from late autumn through winter.

Lemon Dwarf ‘Lisbon’

The Dwarf Lisbon lemon tree grows well in South Africa and thrives in hot conditions, even tolerating strong winds. This variety grows vigorously, producing abundant fruit with a thin skin and high acidity. Dwarf varieties will produce the exact size of fruit as a standard tree, and crop yield is not restricted. Lemons can be picked as needed and are typically ripe from late autumn through winter. Dwarf Lisbon lemon trees can grow to approximately 2.5m.

Orange/Lemon Double Grafted Tree

Have your choice of a Lemon or an Orange on one tree. This double-grafted option is a standard-sized tree, with a grafted Eureka Lemon and a grafted Fischer Orange. Your tree should produce Oranges from April to September and Lemons from February to July.

Orange Dwarf ‘Valencia’

Valencia oranges are a popular sweet variety known for their excellent flavour and versatility. They have a thin, bright orange skin with a slightly dimpled surface, and are delicious eaten fresh, either on their own or as part of salads and desserts. Valencia oranges have a longer growing season compared to other orange varieties, often from late winter through summer. This extended season makes them a popular choice for producing fresh juice. Your dwarf variety will produce the same-sized fruit as a standard Valencia tree, and the tree size will not affect the fruit yield. These oranges can grow to 2m tall and are ideal for growing in a pot.

Dwarf Pomegranate ‘Little Charlie’

Little Charlie is a dwarf variety known for several key features and benefits. Its compact size makes it an ideal choice for small gardens. It grows to about 1.5m tall and 1 m wide. It has small, dense leaves that make it ideal for a low, compact hedge. It also grows well in containers and is frost-tolerant once established. The plant produces numerous juicy and flavourful fruits and both the vibrant orange-red flowers and fruits are highly ornamental. This variety is also known for its resilience as it thrives in various climates and is self-pollinating, ensuring a reliable fruit harvest.

Avocado Dwarf 'Hass' 

The Hass avocado is one of the most popular and commercially grown avocado varieties worldwide. Dwarf Hass trees only reach a height of about 2m when fully grown, but they produce the same delicious, creamy-textured fruit as standard-sized trees. Hass avocados are known for their rich flavour and creamy texture, making them a favourite for salads, sandwiches, and guacamole. Overall, Dwarf Hass avocado trees are an excellent choice for avocado enthusiasts who want to enjoy home grown fruit but have limited space for larger trees. Given the proper care, dwarf Hass trees can provide a bountiful harvest of delicious avocados for many years.

Coconut Dwarf ‘Malayan’

The dwarf green coconut palm is a smaller and faster-maturing cultivar of the coconut palm tree. And although these dwarf trees will still reach heights of 7 to 10m, this is still significantly shorter than the standard coconut tree, which can grow up to 30m tall. Green coconuts are harvested when the husk is green. The water inside is sweeter and less thick than mature brown coconuts. As the coconut matures and the husk turns brown, the water inside becomes thicker, cloudier, and savoury. The water in mature brown coconuts also contains less sugar and more minerals than young green coconuts. Coconut trees typically start bearing fruit after 3 to 5 years, and the fruit matures in about 12 months.

Papaya Dwarf 'California' 

Dwarf California Papaya is a unique dwarf cultivar valued for its compact size and fruiting characteristics. It is self-pollinating and grows to about 2 to 3m tall, making it suitable for smaller gardens or containers. It produces elongated yellow fruits when ripe, resembling a cross between a papaya and a banana in appearance. The fruits are often seedless or contain very few seeds, which is unusual for papayas.

Mango Double Grafted Heidi/Tommy Atkins

This duo has a grafted Heidi and a grafted Tommy Atkins, both on the same tree. Mango Heidi is a medium to large-sized, late season mango with a distinctive heart shape, and is deliciously sweet. It is perfect as a summer snack or in smoothies. It grows well in South Africa, and is often grown in the Western Cape. The Tommy Atkins mango is favoured for its long shelf-life and its resistance to bruising when transported. It has beautiful blushed yellow, red and purple skin with irresistible yellow flesh.

Mango Double Grafted Joa/Tommy Atkins

This duo has a grafted Joa and a grafted Tommy Atkins, both on the same tree. Joa Mango is a new South African cultivar which is not farmed commercially as it is not suitable for processing, as the exceptionally high sugar content turns the fruit brown when dried. The skin is shiny and orange to red in colour, and the perfume, flavour and appearance surpass most other mango varieties. The quality of the fruit is exceptional, and can be stored in a fridge with no side effects for up to a month. The Tommy Atkins mango is favoured for its long shelf-life and its resistance to bruising when transported. It has beautiful blushed yellow, red and purple skin with irresistible yellow flesh.

Double-grafted mango trees can be controlled through pruning to grow to a manageable size, typically around 3 to 6m tall and wide, making them suitable for smaller spaces. Unpruned trees can grow much taller, so regular pruning is essential for both controlling size and making the fruit easier to harvest. Prune in summer and again in winter to prevent the tree from becoming too big for your space. You can also stake the branches horizontally, making this duo also good for espalier.

Mango Double Grafted Keitt/Tommy Atkin

This duo has a grafted Keitt and a grafted Tommy Atkins, both on the same tree. Keitt mangoes are large, late-season fruits. Unlike most mango species, Keitts don’t have fibrous pieces in their flesh and remain green when ripe. This creamy, sweet fruit is excellent for desserts, salads, smoothies and preserves. Keitt are late-harvest mangoes harvested in the height of summer. The Tommy Atkins mango is favoured for its long shelf-life and its resistance to bruising when transported. It has beautiful blushed yellow, red and purple skin with irresistible yellow flesh.

Double-grafted mango trees can be controlled through pruning to grow to a manageable size, typically around 3 to 6m tall and wide, making them suitable for smaller spaces, although unpruned trees can grow much taller.

Mango Triple Grafted Keitt/Tommy Atkins/Joa

This trio has a grafted Keitt, Tommy Atkins and Joa, all on the same tree. The fruit of the Keitt mango arrives first, as early as August or September. Then Tommy Atkins mangoes will fruit in early December. You’ll know this medium to large-sized fruit from its thick skin and sunset orange-red colouring, and lastly, Joa will fruit in January/February. What an excellent way to experience these delicious fruits over an extended period.

Keitt mangoes are large, late-season fruits. Unlike most mango species, Keitts don’t have fibrous pieces in their flesh and remain green when ripe. The creamy, sweet fruit is excellent for desserts, salads, smoothies and preserves. Keitt are late-harvest mangoes harvested in the height of summer. The Tommy Atkins mango is favoured for its long shelf-life and its resistance to bruising when transported. It has beautiful blushed yellow, red and purple skin with irresistible yellow flesh. Joa is a new South African cultivar and is not farmed commercially as it is not suitable for processing as the exceptionally high sugar content turns the fruit brown when dried. The skin is shiny and orange to red in colour, and the perfume, flavour and appearance surpasses most other mango varieties. The quality of the fruit is exceptional, and can be stored in a fridge with no side effects for up to a month.

Cultivation:

Correct care and maintenance of your dwarf, double and triple grafted fruit trees will ensure they stay healthy and grow in a balanced form, producing their nutritious crops for years to come.

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Image by Dieter G from PixabayGrowing Dwarf, Double and Triple Grafted Fruit Trees in Pots

Potted fruit trees are great assets for small gardens and they look lovely adorning patios, walkways and even small balconies.  Growing your tree in a pot will reduce the size of the tree to about two thirds the size the tree would normally grow in the ground. Start by selecting a pot a bit bigger than the plant bag it is currently growing in, and as a guide, every year or two you will need to repot into a slightly bigger pot. If you don't want to pot up every year you can also plant you directly into a large pot around the size of a half wine barrel size or larger, but you will then need to ensure that the soil has perfect drainage and that you do not overwater.  

Terracotta pots are great but they will need extra watering compared to ceramic or plastic pots. Heavier pots provide stability and prevent the tree from tipping or blowing over easily. Ensure that the pot has adequate drainage holes to prevent waterlogging, which can lead to root rot.

Use a high-quality potting mix, remove the bag and place the tree in the centre of the pot, ensuring the graft union (the knobby part where the different fruits are grafted) is above the soil line. Fill around the root ball with more potting mix, gently firming it down to eliminate air pockets. Give your tree a thorough watering to settle the soil.

Caring for potted fruit trees involves regular watering. Keep the soil consistently moist but not waterlogged. In hot weather, this may mean watering daily. Use a balanced fertilizer every 6 to 8 weeks during the growing season.

Prune to shape the tree and keep it smaller and more accessible, and to remove any weak, dead or diseased branches.

Mango Double Grafted Planting Dwarf, Double and Triple Grafted Fruit Trees in Garden Beds

Select a site in full sun and where it will be sheltered from strong winds if possible. Dig a square hole, twice the size of the plant bag. Incorporate compost into the soil. Cut off the plastic bag and place the tree in the hole ensuring the graft union (the knobby part where the different fruits are grafted) is above the soil line. Fill around the root ball with more compost, gently firming it down to eliminate air pockets. If you have heavy or clay soils, plant your tree on top of the ground and mound soil up onto it. This will prevent your trees from becoming waterlogged. Give your tree a thorough watering to settle the soil. Add a thick layer of mulch to hold the moisture but keep it well away from the stems.

If you are planting several trees, ensure that you space them correctly to allow forgood air flow and sufficient space to harvest and prune between the trees

Keep your tree moist at all times, watering more often during the hotter months. Once established a weekly deep watering is better than frequent light sprinklings, as this promotes deeper root development. Reduce watering habits for dormant trees during the winter months.

Fertilise 2 to 3 times a year, in late winter, early summer and again in early autumn. Compost and mature manure are excellent fertilisers. Supplement with a good fertiliser for fruiting plants or a slow release fertiliser. Keep fertilisers well away from the trunk of the tree.

How to prune Dwarf, Double and Triple Grafted Fruit Trees

While your tree is young, it's most important that a comparison is made between the growth and vigour of each fruit’s branch work (we call this branch work “graft”). If one of the fruit grafts is growing faster, compared to the others, then it should be cut and shortened to ensure that each separate graft is growing at a ‘balanced’ and even rate. If all the grafts are not ‘balanced’ regularly, especially when the tree is young, then the faster growing grafts will become bigger, stronger and eventually dominate over the others, and depriving the slower growers of nutrients and space to grow.

Check for balancing about once a month and keep each graft confined to grow in its own area of the tree.  When your tree is more mature, you'll need to ensure an overall wine glass shape, allowing room for air circulation and sunlight to reach the trunk.

Fruit Espalier. Picture by Gail Langellotto from flickrCan I espalier my Dwarf, Double and Triple Grafted Fruit Trees?

Yes you can espalier your trees along a wall on your balcony or against a fence or wall. This method saves space and is especially helpful for Apple trees as it provides extra support for heavy cropping. The art of espalier is a lot of work but can be great fun and most rewarding. A few of the benefits include being able to grow fruit at home in a narrow space, and where the fruit is easy to pick and maintain. This method can also be very artistic, and if done correctly, is guaranteed to have your neighbours talking.

Espalier is all about selectively pruning and training a plant into a desired shape, and an espalier fruit tree is the result of intensive training, so if you want to adopt this technique, bear in mind that that any espalier undertaking will be time consuming and can take years to complete. However, once established this method can make an exceptional focal point in bare areas of the garden, and especially along the large bare outdoor walls of your home, or perimeter walls. When trained on a free-standing trellis, these plants can also serve as attractive screens to hide unsightly views or to add privacy.

Sunlight needs to reach all the branches and fruit, so it’s best to direct growth to allow sunlight to hit the middle of the tree, you can do this by positioning the branches so there’s a V shape between each branch.

Branches of young trees can be gently persuaded to grow in any direction. You can guide them using bamboo stakes (or similar) and cloth strip ties made of old T-shirts. This technique may be useful for training against walls/structures or directing individual grafts.

Despite our best efforts, sometimes the grafts (branches) will grow along the one side of the rootstock or Mother Tree. Such trees can be gently nudged to grow in a desired direction by manoeuvring branches away from one another by staking and tying. Young branches are very flexible, but if the desired position requires a dramatic change in branch direction, training should be done gradually. This may mean moving the stake and ties every few weeks until branches are where you want them.

Remove rootstock growth

Any ‘rootstock’ growth on the tree must be removed as soon as possible. The rootstock tree is the main central stem of the tree and its root system under the soil. This is the ‘mother’ tree and it hosts the fruit grafts that have been attached (grafted) to it. If the roots shoot any growth out from the soil, cut it off as low as you can, and as soon as you can. You don’t want that growth to take energy away from the fruit grafts attached higher up on the central stem.

Thinning the fruit

The first fruits on your tree will appear anywhere between 6 and 18 months. On young trees its best to remove these fruits to allow your tree to use the energy to grow and develop a sturdy framework, which needs to be ahead of any fruit production.

Dwarf Citrus Image by Gustavo Fring from PexelsDwarf, double-worked, and triple-grafted fruit trees represent some of horticulture's greatest innovations. They allow gardeners to enjoy abundant harvests in spaces once thought impossible. While they cost more initially, their earlier cropping, easier maintenance, and space-saving qualities make them an excellent investment.

Thanks to advances in grafting and rootstock development, gardeners can now grow productive apple, pear, plum, citrus, and stone fruit trees in even the smallest spaces.

Whether you're interested in planting a compact dwarf fruit tree in the garden or in a pot on the patio; or a fascinating "double or triple grafted tree" with multiple varieties of the same type of fruit on a single tree, understanding the history and science behind these trees is essential.

Modern grafting techniques

If allowed to grow naturally, most fruit trees will easily reach heights of at least 4.5m which makes them far too large for most gardens and also difficult to harvest. To overcome this problem, most fruit trees are grafted to the roots of a related species with a more compact habit. They might also be grafted to a rootstock that provides a desirable characteristic like vigour or disease resistance.

Grafting is a horticultural technique whereby tissues of plants are joined so as to continue their growth together. The upper part of the combined plant is called the "scion" while the lower part is called the "rootstock". In most cases, the stock or rootstock is selected for its roots and the scion is selected for its stems, leaves, flowers, or fruits. The scion contains the desired genes to be duplicated in future production by the grafted plant.

Most of the grafting methods practiced today have been practiced with little change for centuries, and little has changed in our understanding of the importance of scion wood selection from the donor plant. Scions are best chosen from bearing wood which is already capable of flowering and fruiting, rather than from juvenile suckers which will take longer to fruit.

Today we have a better understanding of compatibility, and that successful grafting is more likely if stock and scion are of the same genotype. For example various types of citrus can be grafted together onto one rootstock, or various types of apples together, but trying to graft apples onto citrus rootstock will not work well.

The famous apple rootstock M9 is still the gold standard today, traces its lineage back to the ancient Paradise apple rootstocks cultivated in Persia and medieval France. In the early 1900s, the East Malling Research Station in England standardized these rootstocks, revolutionizing commercial and home fruit growing worldwide.

Tangarines growing in clay pot Image by Tiểu Bảo Trương from PexelsDwarf, Double, and Triple Grafted Fruit Trees

Dwarf, double, and triple-grafted fruit trees represent some of horticulture's greatest innovations. They allow gardeners to enjoy abundant harvests in spaces once thought impossible.

Grafting a fruit tree to a dwarf rootstock reduces the ultimate size of the tree to such an extent that, as well as thriving on a small plot, they can even be grown in large 60cm diameter containers on your patio. In fact, growing trees in containers is another way to restrict growth. Most miniature fruit trees will reach an approximate height of just 1m, but will grow bigger if you opt to grow them in the ground.

While dwarf rootstocks are expensive, their earlier cropping, easier maintenance, and space-saving qualities make them an excellent investment. It’s worth remembering that the rootstock you use has no influence upon the size of the fruit itself, so a dwarf patio fruit tree will produce the same-sized fruits as a large orchard-sized tree.

Double Grafted Fruit Trees

Most fruit trees are made up of two parts: the rootstock below ground and the fruiting variety above it. These two sections are joined together by a single graft union.

A double-worked fruit tree is more sophisticated. Instead of just one graft, it has two graft unions, using an intermediate short section of stem, known as an “inter-stem” or “inter-stock”, which is inserted between the primary rootstock and the fruiting variety (scion).

Some excellent rootstocks have one major drawback. For example, a vigorous rootstock may offer exceptional drought tolerance and anchorage, but produce a tree that grows too large for most home gardens. By adding an inter-stem growers can combine the best qualities of two different rootstocks in a single tree.

This technique combines the strengths of two rootstocks. For example: The strength and resilience of MM111 below ground for vigour, drought tolerance, and anchorage, and M9 interstem for dwarfing and early fruiting.

Triple-grafted fruit trees

A double-worked tree adds an interstem, creating two graft unions. A triple-grafted fruit tree takes this concept one step further. Instead of supporting a single variety, one rootstock carries three different fruiting varieties, each grafted onto its own branch. Because each variety has its own graft union, the result is a single tree capable of producing three different cultivars.

Why Rootstocks Are Expensive

Quality rootstocks are not cheap—and for good reasons

Years of Propagation

Most dwarf rootstocks are propagated vegetatively through stool beds, not seed. This process takes several seasons.

Additional Grafting

Double or Triple-worked and inter-stem trees require extra labour and an additional year of growth in the nursery.

Limited Supply

Specialised rootstocks such as M27, M9, Gisela 5, and Quince C are produced in smaller numbers.

Disease Certification

Commercial nurseries must maintain virus-free stock.

Skilled Labour

Successful grafting requires expertise—not every attempt takes.

CLICK HERE TO SHOP FOR DWARF, DOUBLE & TRIPLE GRAFTED FRUIT TREES WHEN AVAILABLE

In Conclusion:

These fruit trees offer superior performance, making the extra investment worthwhile.

Members can click here to read my article “How to grow fruit trees in small spaces”

Pollinator Plants Image by OrsonCarte from PixabayWild bees and other pollinators are in decline worldwide, and one way gardeners can help is by planting flowers that provide forage. Annual flowers have always been a favourite for gardeners as they provide instant seasonal colour and are relatively easy to grow. The annuals listed below will not only create a colourful garden, but will also ensure a continuous source of high-energy nectar and pollen to sustain pollinators in winter and spring when food resources are scarce.

One of the best things about gardening with annuals to attract pollinators is that, since you are replanting each season anyway, you can change your theme and colour scheme every year. Get creative, try new plant combinations, and over time you’ll learn which annuals both you and the winged critters love the best.

The annuals listed below are excellent for attracting bees, butterflies, hoverflies and other beneficial pollinators while giving strong colour through winter and spring.

You may like to read my FREE article: "Helping honeybees survive, one garden at a time" before making your selection.

Bokbaai Vygie Bokbaai Vygie (Dorotheanthus bellidiformis)

Bokbaai vygies are grown for their multitude of silky-textured flowers in a dazzling range of colours like yellow, cream, pink, lavender, magenta, and orange. They can be used just about anywhere you have full sun in the winter garden. Their attractive succulent foliage is wonderful in rock gardens, cascading over a wall, draping from a mixed container planting, or carpeting a garden bed. They are particularly beautiful if sown in large drifts.

This water-wise, indigenous South African annual blooms prolifically in spring, and its vibrant, sun-reflecting blooms act as a highly visible magnet that draws in wild bees, honeybees, butterflies, and many other pollinators, providing a rich source of both nectar and pollen. The bees gather nectar to make honey (carbohydrates), and pollen for the essential proteins, fats, and vitamins required to sustain their hives.

Because Bokbaai vygies are native to sunny, dry environments, their radiant, daisy-like flowers only open fully on warm, sunny days when pollinators are most active. Bees rely heavily on scent and flower colours and patterns, and the bright colours of Bokbaai vygies and the symmetrical shape of their flowers act as clear "landing pads" that guide bees directly to the food source. When planted together in large drifts or "bee carpets," they create a massive block of colour and scent that makes it highly efficient for bees to harvest without wasting energy flying between distant patches of flowers.

Members can click here to read more about growing Bokbaai vygies 

Namaqualand DaisyNamaqualand Daisies, African Daisy (Dimorphotheca)

Namaqualand daisies grow naturally in the winter-rainfall regions of South Africa, and are renowned worldwide for the spectacular show they put on in Namaqualand after good winter rains. They also adorn many gardens at this time, and remain a favourite for gardeners because they are economical, water-wise, and easy to grow from seed sown directly into garden beds. An added bonus is that at the end of the growing season you can collect seeds to sow next season, so you only have to buy them once. Namaqualand Daisies come in the traditional bright orange and yellow, as well as pastel shades like salmon, cream and pure white. They require as much sunlight as you can provide as the flowers only open in the sun and will remain closed on overcast days.

Namaqualand daisies are used as a low cover around shrubs in hot, sunny beds, or as the focal point in mass plantings. They make cheerful fillers amongst dormant roses, and pretty borders, so sow them in mass into large beds, rockeries or borders for hassle-free winter and spring colour. These daisies will attract many pollinators, including butterflies and bees to the garden, providing a vital food resource at a time of year when nectar is scarce, so even if you have a small garden, sow a small packet this autumn and you will find yourself adding these lovely flowers to your garden each year. 

When grown in drifts or meadows, their vibrant colours and light fragrance create strong visual cues that attract pollinators from long distances.Their wide, open petals act as natural ‘landing pads’, so a wide variety of bees—from solitary bees to honeybees—can easily forage without struggling. Their bright, serrated centres are loaded with protein-packed pollen and nectar, providing bees with the fats, proteins, and carbohydrates they need to feed their developing larvae and sustain hive health.

Members can click here to read more about growing Namaqualand daisies

SnapdragonsSnapdragon (Antirrhinum majus)

Snapdragons never go out of fashion, and in season you will always find packets of seeds or trays of seedlings alongside other annuals because they are so reliable and easy to grow, bringing great pleasure to gardeners worldwide.  Snapdragons are available in dwarf and tall strains, and the flowers come in almost every colour or bicolour, including red, bronze, yellow, orange, pink, purple, cream, and white. Be sure to select colours that go with your interior colours, as snaps are fantastic cut flowers. Their vast colour palette allows you to mix them effortlessly with other flowering annuals for a long-lasting effect, so include snapdragons in mixed plantings, in window boxes, hanging baskets, and containers of all sizes.

Snapdragons have highly visible coloured patterns like contrasting yellow or magenta centres that act like "landing strips" to guide bees. On sunny afternoons, the plant releases a stronger fragrance, which attracts foraging bees and clings to them so hive-mates can track the scent back to the blooms. Research has shown that snapdragons can literally ‘hear’ the buzz of approaching, friendly pollinators, and when they detect the vibrations of a helpful bee the plants sweeten their nectar to reward their favourite visitors. Once inside, the bee is rewarded with highly nutritious pollen and sweet nectar. As the bee forces its way in and out, the flower's pollen dusting mechanism coats the insect's body, ensuring the pollen gets transported to the next flower.

The relationship between snapdragons and pollinators involves some incredibly clever evolutionary traits. Snapdragons support bees and pollinators by utilizing a specialized, closed-mouth floral structure that specifically targets larger, heavy insects like bumblebees. The flower's petals are fused to create a closed, two-lipped ‘jaw’ which is activated by weight, so a bee must land on and physically pry open the bottom lip to crawl inside. Because snapdragons demand a specific weight to open, this clever design prevents lighter, inefficient insects from stealing nectar and plays a crucial ecological role in sustaining larger, more robust pollinators like bumblebees, which are essential for many agricultural crops. The flower petals are also covered in microscopic, cone-shaped cells that act like tiny ‘non-slip mats’. This textured surface provides bees with the traction they need to grip the flower and force it open.

Members can click here to read more about growing Snapdragons

Calendula Pot Marigold (Calendula officinalis)

Calendula is a satisfying choice for novice gardeners and children because it rewards quickly with generous crops of showy flowers. It is a fast growing winter and spring flowering annual that is easy to germinate and simple to care for, producing large, single or double flowers that last long in a vase. The clear, bright colours are orange to apricot-orange and golden to lemon-yellow. Calendula perform best when sown directly into garden beds, and the seed is very inexpensive, making it a most economical winter crop to sow. And, because the mature seed is quite large, it can easily be collected and saved for next season.

An added bonus is that calendula will grow happily in full sun or light shade, making it super versatile in the garden, and especially good for those garden beds where the sun pattern changes from full sun to semi-shade during the day. Sown in massed beds or as an edging plant alongside walkways, calendulas can put on quite a show. They also complement other winter flowering annuals if planted into window boxes, hanging baskets and pots, providing many weeks of warm winter colour. Their bright, open daisy-like blooms attract a variety of beneficial insects like honeybees, bumblebees, butterflies, and hoverflies, which all help pollinate surrounding garden crops. Calendula is also a renowned ‘companion plant’ for other garden plants, helping to keep those growing nearby healthy, so sow them between your winter vegetable crops for a healthier and very pretty winter veggie patch.

Calendula blooms profusely for a long period, filling critical food gaps for pollinators early and late in the season. The flat, open shape of the daisy-like flower heads makes it incredibly easy for various bee species and other pollinators to land on and access the pollen and nectar without having to navigate complicated petal structures. Therefore calendulas support bees and pollinators by providing an easily accessible, steady supply of nectar which offers the carbohydrates required for flight energy, and pollen which provides bees with necessary proteins and fats, throughout a long flowering season.

Members can click here to read more about growing Calendula

Iceland Poppy Iceland Poppy (Papaver nudicaule)

Iceland poppies are available in bright and pastel shades of red, pink, yellow, orange, cream and white, as well as bicoloured varieties. There are several varieties like ‘Champagne Bubbles’ which are available in mixed and single colours.  Poppies are sought after cut flowers and the more you pick them, the more they bloom! May is the perfect time to plant Iceland Poppy seedlings in South Africa. They love full sun and well-prepared beds. Iceland poppies will flower all winter and spring if you nip out very first flowers and continually deadhead thereafter;  removing the spent flowers by cutting them off at the base of the plant.

Iceland poppies attract bees, butterflies and other pollinators to the garden and combine beautifully with most winter flowering annuals, and make a fantastic backdrop for spring flowering bulbs. Try planting them in drifts, inter-planted with pansies or violas in complimentary or contrasting colours for a brilliant display. They are wonderful in meadow and cottage gardens and also grow well in containers with other annuals. 

The bright, vibrant petals of Iceland poppies are highly attractive to pollinators, drawing them into the garden where they can pollinate surrounding plants and crops. Because they bloom from winter through spring, they provide much-needed early spring food source for emerging queen bumblebees and active honey bees at times when other forage is scarce. While Iceland poppies do not produce nectar, their flowers offer massive amounts of protein-rich pollen. Because their open, bowl-like blooms expose their stamens, bees can easily forage, roll around, and gather pollen to feed their colonies and larvae, without expending too much energy.  This makes them a great resource for native solitary bees and honey bees looking to pack their ‘pollen baskets’. 

Members can click here to read more about growing Iceland Poppies 

AlyssumAlyssum (Lobularia maritime)

Alyssum is a compact, low-growing plant that remains one of the most popular bedding plants because it is low maintenance, long flowering and very easy to grow all year round in full sun or light shade. Its honey scented flower spikes are available in lovely in shades of pink, rose, purple, mauve, white and yellow. Alyssum makes a wonderful carpet-like ground cover, so you can use it as an edging plant in the garden, or to fill nooks and crannies on walkways and walls. The tight, free-flowering plants also mix effortlessly with other flowering plants in all manner of containers for months of colour. Inter planting alyssum around your vegetables and fruit trees, brings pollinators directly to the area, which significantly improves yields. Along with many other pollinators, the flowers attract hoverflies, lacewings, and parasitic wasps. These predatory insects feed on common garden pests like aphids and caterpillars, creating a healthy, pesticide-free ecosystem.

Because alyssum blooms profusely for months, and in mild climates can bloom almost all year, it offers a reliable and long-lasting supply of nectar and pollen. Its delicate honey-like aroma is highly fragrant to pollinators, traveling long distances to attract bees, butterflies, and even hoverflies into your garden. The plant's exceptionally small flowers have short, shallow nectaries (a specialized plant gland that secretes nectar). This makes them highly accessible to smaller bee species, solitary bees, and beneficial predatory insects that struggle to feed from larger, tubular flowers.

Members can click here to read more about growing Alyssum          

LobeliaLobelia (Lobelia erinus)

This little annual herb, or short-lived perennial, forms dense mounds smothered with small flowers. Some varieties have bronzy foliage and others sport bright green leaves. The cascading varieties produce billowing masses of flowers up to 30cm long and are favourites to mix with other plants in hanging baskets and containers. The wild form is known for its beautiful sky-blue and white flowers, but breeders have been hard at work on this little beauty and today gardeners are spoilt with flowers that often feature a tiny white ‘eye’ in each bloom and come in various shades of blue, purple, lilac, pink, and pure white. Lobelia is a popular choice for gardeners due to its variety of uses. This reliable little plant can be tucked into just about any plant combination, to fill in the gaps in garden beds or pots, or to add a bit of trailing interest. Lobelia makes an excellent edging plant for flower beds, and is excellent for boggy areas or near water features. It is especially lovely in hanging baskets and window boxes, planted with other flowering and trailing plants.

Lobelias are good in wildlife gardens as the tubular shape of the flowers and their vibrant colours, especially the bright blues and purples, are highly attractive to pollinators, including a variety of bees and butterflies. Lobelia flowers supply high-quality, carbohydrate-heavy nectar deep inside their tubular structures, which serves as a vital energy source. Their long blooming season also supplies valuable pollen for bees. Pollination is fascinating as the flowers have fused anthers that form a tube, and when a bee pushes its head into the flower, it triggers a ‘pump mechanism’ that releases and dusts pollen directly onto the insect's head and thorax. The tubular shape of the flowers accommodates bumblebees and long-tongued bees perfectly. This steady food supply directly powers the daily flight and foraging requirements of local insect populations.

Members can click here to read more about growing Lobelia

Nemesia Nemesia, Cape Jewels (Nemesia strumosa)

Nemesias are one of those endearing little South African annuals that never fail to delight gardeners, and they have been in cultivation for a long time. All nemesias are amazing landscaping species for gardens small or large, and can be just as pretty planted in pots and hanging baskets as they are as an edging plant in mixed borders, or as fillers between other larger plants and shrubs. Plant drifts of these delightful little annuals, and you will never be able to imagine your garden without them again.

Incorporating these versatile, low-maintenance plants in garden beds, balcony containers, or hanging baskets creates vital feeding zones that support local ecosystems by  providing a vital, easily accessible source of nectar and pollen in winter and spring when other flowers are scarce. Nemesia flowers are highly fragrant, and because bees use scent to locate food from afar, this sweet aroma acts as a powerful homing beacon, drawing them straight to the flowers. While scent draws them in from a distance, bees also rely on colour when they get closer, and because nemesias come in brilliant shades of yellow, purple, blue, white, and pink, the provide highly visible visual cues for bees to target.  The nectar offers the high sugar content bees need for energy to sustain their foraging flights, and the flowers' unique tubular, pouch-like, or two-lipped structure makes the nectar and protein-rich pollen easily accessible to a variety of bee species.   

Members can click here to read more about growing Nemesia

primulamalaciodesPrimula malacoides (Fairy Primrose)

Scatter some fairy magic throughout your garden by tucking fairy primroses into areas of the garden which receive semi-shade to sun. The flowers come in delightful shades of lilac, purple, pink, carmine-red and white, and gardeners love to use them in flower and bulb borders. You can even create your own meadow garden by planting them between ornamental grass-like plants, and if space is limited, include them with other winter and spring flowering plants in pots, window boxes, and hanging baskets, where fairy primulas will add vertical accent to the arrangement.

While Primula malacoides varieties are great for attracting pollinators to your garden, some highly hybridized, vividly coloured purple, pink and carmine-red ornamental primulas sold in nurseries have been bred in ways that reduce their nectar value, so when planting for pollinators select the pale lilac ones. They support bees and pollinators primarily by providing source of pollen and nectar during winter and spring when they provide a much-needed, easily accessible food source for emerging pollinators when other forage is scarce. The flowers yield both pollen, which provides protein, and nectar which provides carbohydrates and energy for foraging bees. Insects emerging from hibernation on mild days, like queen bumblebees, are seeking early sustenance and rely on these early blooms.

Members can click here to read more about growing Fairy Primrose

Sweet PeasSweet Pea (Lathyrus odoratus)

Sweet peas are lovely cut flowers, spreading their heady scent throughout the garden and home, and the more you pick them, the more they bloom. They are available in almost every conceivable colour, except for yellow, and are so easy to grow they are suitable for children’s gardens.  All they need to flourish is full sun, rich soil, and regular feeding and watering. It’s no wonder people have been romancing the sweet pea for hundreds of years. Sweet peas are available as climbers which can be grown anywhere they have some support, knee-high’s are great in the middle of a winter and spring flower border, and dwarf varieties are great border plants and fabulous in pots, window boxes and hanging baskets, so there’s no excuse not to have some sweet peas, even in the smallest of gardens. Planting sweet peas on trellises, fences, or near vegetable gardens naturally draws bees to your yard. Once the bees are there, they will naturally cross-pollinate your other flowering crops

 Sweet peas support bees and pollinators by providing a vital early-season source of pollen and nectar, and according to horticultural experts, incorporating sweet peas bolsters local biodiversity and creates a much healthier, bustling garden ecosystem. The vibrant colours and strong, sweet scent of sweet peas makes them highly visible and attractive to passing pollinators. The sugary nectar at the base of their petals fuels foraging bees and butterflies as they move from bloom to bloom, and the flowers are an excellent source of protein-rich pollen, which bees collect to feed their developing larvae and sustain the hive. Research confirms that sweet peas are specialized for bee pollination, evolving distinct floral shapes known as ‘pea-like’ or ‘papilionaceous’ flowers. Papilionaceous flowers are distinctly butterfly-shaped, irregular blossoms, characteristic of the pea and bean family. They feature five unequal petals structured to shelter reproductive organs and attract specific pollinators like bees. The flowers require a bee's weight and foraging behaviour to properly access the pollen and trigger natural pollination.

Members can click here to read more about growing Sweet Peas

Calendula Image by Светлана from Pixabay

What is Companion Planting?

The nature of companion planting in edible gardens is basically planting one or more different species of plants which benefit one another, in close proximity to each other. This also creates diversity in the garden, making it less likely for pests and diseases to spread rampantly through the vegetable garden.

For example, while the cruciferous gang of vegetables may all enjoy the same cool climate and growing conditions, they do not like to hang together in the garden because they share the same pests and disease problems, and should be planted in separated beds. However, if they are planted with good companions like Calendula, Rosemary, Sage and Thyme, these companion plants will help to deter pests with their strong scent, while attracting bees and other pollinators with their aromatic flowers.

Vegetable Companion Plants Image by congerdesign from PixabayIn subtropical regions, late summer, autumn and winter, are the most popular times to garden, and especially if you wish to grow your own vegetables. Most vegetables have definite seasons in which they prefer to grow, and because the seasons are not clearly defined in the subtropics, many crops only have short timeslots when they will thrive. Learning to pick these timeslots is the tricky part of subtropical veggie gardening. If you don’t get the timing right, your crops will either not grow at all or grow poorly, and could therefore suffer from serious pest damage.

Members can click here to read my article: "Growing vegetables in the subtropics"

What are Cruciferous Vegetables?

Cruciferous vegetables are vegetables of the family Brassicaceae or Cruciferae, a medium-sized and economically important family of flowering plants commonly known as the mustards, the crucifers, or the cabbage family. It includes many of our favourite winter vegetables like: Broccoli, Brussels Sprout, Cauliflower, Cabbage, Kale, Collard Greens, Kohlrabi, Garden Cress, Bok Choy, Mizuna, Tatsoi, Rocket, Radish, Mustard Greens, Radish, Turnip and Rutabago.

Companion Plants for Cruciferous Vegetables

The following list of companion plants is specifically for Cruciferous vegetables, although I do mention other vegetables they will protect.

Not only will these companions make your veggie patch look stunning and keep your plants healthier, it will hopefully encourage you to experiment more with companion planting in your edible garden.

Alyssum Image by May hokkaido from PixabaySweet Alyssum

Alyssum is a magnet for pollinators and also attracts beneficial insects like parasitic wasps and hoverflies. In the veggie garden it also acts like pretty living mulch that suppresses weeds.

Sweet Alyssum is excellent planted around or underneath cruciferous vegetables, and your veggie patch or pots will be so much prettier.

Members can click here to read more about Alyssum

Calendula

Calendula contains alkaloids, enzymes, etheric oils and resins, amongst other substances, making it a valuable companion plant for vegetables, herbs, strawberries and other berries to deter common pests like aphids and whitefly.

Under fruit trees it’s invaluable, as the roots of calendula emit a scent that keeps nematodes (eelworm) at bay.  Once it has finished flowering, to keep eelworm at bay, dig the entire plant into the soil as a green manure, and also to enrich the soil.

In South Africa calendula blooms heavily in winter and spring, attracting pollinators like bees, hoverflies, and ladybirds to the garden. Pop calendulas in wherever you have gaps in the winter veggie patch, they are excellent companions for cruciferous vegetables, and also lettuce, and peas.

Members can click here to read more about Calendula

Petunias Image by Hans from PixabayPetunia

Petunias make bright and cheerful companion plants for cruciferous vegetables because they act as a tonic plant, so if you do not get heavy frosts in winter try planting some nearby, your veggie patch will look much more inviting.

Members can click here to read more about Petunias

Nasturtiums & Marigolds

In warmer, frost free regions annuals like nasturtiums and marigolds are the top companion plants for cruciferous vegetables because they lure hungry caterpillars away from broccoli and other brassicas.

Members can click here to read more about Nasturtiums

Members can click here to read more about Marigolds

Coriander

In subtropical gardens coriander is a favourite herb to grow in the cool seasons, as in summer it can bolt during hot weather. As a companion plant in the garden it attracts beneficial insects like hoverflies and parasitic wasps, and is very useful planted near cruciferous vegetables.

Members can click here to read more about Coriander

Chives in bloom. Image by Hans Linde from PixabayChives

Chives help to deter aphids and are great near cruciferous vegetables. They are also good growing near carrots, lettuce, and beetroot.

Members can click here to read more about Chives

Onions, Spring Onions & Garlic

Because the leaves and flowers of onions and garlic have a pungent smell that naturally repels insects, they are particularly beneficial as a pest repellent in the vegetable garden in general.

They are especially good for cruciferous vegetables, helping repel cabbage caterpillars, cabbage maggots, cabbage worms, Japanese beetles, carrot fly and aphids.

Onions and garlic also repel insect pests of strawberries and peaches, and grow well close to tomatoes, repelling the red spider mites that normally favour tomato plants.

Plants from the onion family also do well with celery, beets, spinach, lettuce, parsnips, sweet peppers and carrots because onions and garlic repel insect pests that favour these vegetables.

Members can click here to read more about Onions

Members can click here to read more about Garlic

Sage' Tricolor' Image by deluna from PixabaySage

Sage loves to grow with rosemary, and makes a good companion plant for all cruciferous vegetables and also carrots because it helps to repel the cabbage moth, carrot fly, and white flies.

This shrubby evergreen perennial plant can live to be 15 to 20 years old, although for culinary and medicinal purposes the plants are usually replaced every 4 to 5 years, so plant it in the vegetable garden where it can grow undisturbed.

Sage will enhance the looks of any vegetable or flower garden with its long, velvety leaves which are a beautiful soft grey, and today many exciting new garden varieties have been developed with gorgeous leaves flushed with purple or marked in white and pink.

Members can click here to read more about Sage

Thyme

Because thyme it is highly aromatic, it helps to repel cabbage root fly, whitefly, red spider and aphid, making it a wonderful companion plant for cruciferous vegetables and also onions, eggplant, tomatoes and strawberries.

Thyme will also stimulate the growth of neighbouring plants and loves growing close to lavender, oregano, dill and mint.

Thymus species are very popular with pollinators like bees, and are easy to incorporate into the vegetable patch as there are many varieties of thyme, including groundcovers and  small border or potted plants.

Members can click here to read more about Thyme

Rosemary 'Roseus' Image by Beverly Buckley from PixabayRosemary

Rosemary is grown as a companion plant for cruciferous vegetables, beans and carrots, as it helps to deter cabbage moths, bean beetles and carrot flies. Rosemary flowers are also a favourite of honey bees and other pollinators.

Rosemary is easy to incorporate into your veggie patch as there are many forms, from prostrate groundcovers and trailing varieties, to upright forms which can reach 1 to 2m tall if left un-pruned. Because it responds well to clipping Rosemary makes a lovely low formal or informal hedging plant or screen for the vegetable garden, and the prostrate varieties make hardy groundcovers.

Members can click here to read more about Rosemary

Oregano & Marjoram

Oregano and Marjoram grow easily in a pot or in the ground, and are good companion plants for vegetables and roses because they attract pollinators to the garden and help to repel aphids. They are also said to repel the cucumber beetle and squash bugs.

Try planting them near to cruciferous vegetables, as well as tomatoes, peppers, and lettuce.

Members can click here to read more about Oregano and Marjoram

If you are trying to limit your exposure to toxic and synthetic chemicals in your garden and home essential oils can be valuable tools. They are well-known for their wellness virtues for humans, and can also be precious allies to protect your plants naturally and ecologically.

These oils have been used for thousands of years for their medicinal and cosmetic benefits, and their power lies in the hundreds of chemical constituents they contain. Whether you are trying to chase away garden pests from your vegetable or flower garden, protecting your plants against diseases, or you simply want to improve their overall health, you can use these natural defences to your advantage, using products you can store in your medicine chest. How cool is that!

Benefits of Essential Oils in the Garden

Essential oils are the volatile liquids extracted from plants through steam distillation. Their power lies in the hundreds of chemical constituents they contain. Each oil profile has anywhere from 200 to 800 different constituents in varying amounts, hundreds of which have yet to be identified and studied by scientists. Scientists also believe that because of the complex combinations of their constituents, pests will build up a resistance more slowly to essential oil-based pesticides than their synthetic counterparts.

Research has focused on agricultural crops with results showing that essential oils effectively combat a wide range of pests and diseases of agricultural crops, and they also work in ornamental gardens, home vegetable gardens and orchards, making them a natural and ecological alternative to chemical pesticides.

Essential oils offer highly concentrated, natural solutions for organic gardening. They act as potent, Broad-spectrum Pest Repellents, Insecticides, and Fungicides, and unlike chemical pesticides that can damage beneficial insects and degrade your soil health, essential oils won’t harm your soil or pollute the environment.

The most important benefit of using essential oils is that they are safer for humans and beneficial insects. Pollinators are also less likely to suffer, but gardeners must still be careful not to spray essential oils directly onto beneficial insects like bees.

Recent studies indicate that some of the chemicals in essential oils interfere with the octopaminergic nervous system in insects, and since mammals do not share this target site, most diluted essential oil garden sprays will be non-toxic to gardeners and their fur babies.

However, it’s always best to be cautious around pets when spraying or diffusing, as some essential oils are dangerous for pets if inhaled or absorbed through the skin, and even though you are diluting your oils with water to spray your plants with, it’s still safest to keep pets away.

How do pests magically find my plants overnight?

How pests find your precious plant’s is quite magical and ‘mother nature’ at her best!

What are Pheromones and VOC’s?

When pests look for victims, they don’t just randomly choose any plant; they choose it based on specific chemical signals coming from their favourite plants. These signals are called “pheromones” which act like GPS right to your plants.

Plants don't produce true pheromones in the zoological sense, where pheromones are strictly chemicals used for communication within a single animal species. Plants produce highly complex Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and hormones that act in remarkably similar ways to humans, allowing them to communicate, defend themselves, and even manipulate other members of the same species.

For example, if a branch is attacked by insects, it can send airborne signals that prompt other branches, and even neighbouring plants of the same species, to produce defensive toxins before they are even attacked. Some plants can even call for help when attacked, and when one plant is eaten by a caterpillar, it releases specific chemical distress signals that act like an alarm, attracting parasitic wasps or predatory insects that hunt the exact caterpillars damaging the plant.

Pheromones are generally odourless or have a faint, subconscious scent, often described as musky, slightly sweet, or earthy. In nature, different chemical signals have distinct traits—some smell like vanilla, while others smell like rotting flesh, and even urine or sweat in order to attract pollinators. Many flowers like orchids will mimic the exact sex pheromones of female insects to trick the male insects into attempting to mate with the flower. This ensures the plant is pollinated without having to provide any food or nectar.

Pheromones in plant life are called “semiochemicals” and these naturally occurring, organic chemical signals facilitate communication within a species and play a crucial role in various ecological interactions. Released into the environment, these chemical signals can be interpreted by other members of the same species, influencing their behaviour and physiological responses. Acting as nature's non-verbal communication, these highly specific compounds are widely utilized in sustainable agriculture as eco-friendly alternatives to traditional chemical pesticides.

For example, pheromone traps are widely used by farmers today as they are very effective in monitoring or disrupting the mating cycles of destructive insects. You can utilize these chemical concepts in your own garden or farm, as highly fragrant oils work in a similar manner, masking the smell of the crops and other plants they are protecting, confusing unwanted insects, and sending them on their way because your plants are not an easily recognizable target.

Companion Plants and Essential Oils

Both companion planting and intercropping to add biodiversity to the planting is a favourite method of organic gardeners because it offers a hands-off approach to pesticide use.

Pest are attracted to crops by their scent, so by planting many varieties of flowers, vegetables, fruits and other beneficial plants together, their pheromones are mixed, creating a cocktail of chemical scents that confuses pests.

If you combine high-intensity spacing with intercropping you will not only prevent pests from detecting their favourite snacks, you will also grow much more food in a given space.

If you have a small garden and don’t have space for all the companion plants you would love to grow, essential oils can be used instead. For example, basil is a great companion plant for tomatoes, so spraying basil essential oil onto tomato plants is very beneficial. You can even apply it as a soil drench to give the plants a dose that can be absorbed through the root system. This helps to give the tomato plant vigour and greater resistance to pests and diseases.

To Attract Pollinators

To attract pollinators naturally to your edible garden, put 10 drops of wild orange or lavender essential oil into 250ml water, agitate and spray lightly over flowers and buds. Repeat frequently.

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How to Use Essential Oils for Pest Control

When it comes to organic gardening, as with humans, prevention is better than cure, and spraying crops regularly with essential oils to prevent insect infestations and diseases is the most effective method. This will not only chase pests away, but also make your garden smell great!  

Always use pure essential oils, and because they are so potent, always dilute them first.

How to dilute essential oils

One of the drawbacks of using essential oils in the garden is that the levels of terpenes and other constituents can vary greatly depending on the region where the plants are grown, genetics, climate, soil, and other seasonal factors. Therefore, maintaining consistency in the chemical profile of the oils is hard.

For example, rosemary oil extracted from plants growing in two different regions of Italy will contain varying levels of α-pinene, ranging from 11% to 36%. Another study showed that essential oils extracted from different chemotypes of garden thyme did not have the same toxicity against the bean weevil.

This is the reason why, if you look for exact recipes for the oil you wish to use in the garden you will find many different quantities of oil versus water used.

Another factor to take into account is the actual number of drops in a millilitre can vary greatly depending on the thickness of the liquid: Thicker liquids like essential oils produce larger drops, meaning it takes fewer drops to make 1mL. Different dropper bottles or droppers also have varying nozzle sizes, which changes the volume of a single drop.

In standard pharmaceutical measurements, 1 mL is equal to approximately 20 drops (meaning 1 drop is about 0.05 mL). Therefore, 10 drops are typically equal to about 0.5 mL.

This is why physicians do not rely on counting drops, as this can lead to incorrect dosing. Instead they use an oral syringe, a graduated measuring cup, or the specific dropper provided with the medicine.

Because the actual number of drops in a millilitre can vary greatly depending on the thickness of the liquid and varying nozzle sizes, which changes the volume of a single drop, I recommend starting with the lowest recommended dosage. You can always increase it later.

Click here for more details on how measurements convert, you can check out conversion resources like the Omni Calculator Drops to mL Conversion guide.

Always Test Sprays First:

Because the strengths of essential oils can vary, to ensure it does not cause leaf burn (phytotoxicity) it’s important to always test your spray on all the plants you wish to spray, as certain plants may be more sensitive than others. To check spray small, isolated areas of the plants first. Wait at least 24 hours to check for damage before applying it everywhere.

TIP: Tie a piece of string onto each branch you have sprayed so you will remember which plants you have tested.

Mixing your garden spray:

Because essential oils are incredibly strong, to prevent burning your plants always dilute them in water first.

For protection start with only 5-10 drops per Litre of water,

At certain times of the year various pests and diseases will be more prevalent, so for stronger protection dosages can be increased.

Generally you will find recommended dosages are between 10-20 drops per Litre of water.

The Emulsifier:

An emulsifier is essential as essential oils do not mix with water and will float to the top, potentially burning your plants. A gentle liquid dish soap, pure liquid Castile, or black soap can be used.  Witch hazel, vodka, or apple cider vinegar also emulsifies oil and water.

Approximately one teaspoon of liquid emulsifier is used in one litre of water.

The Method:

In a small container, mix your essential oils with your emulsifier, then add some of the water and stir well. Warming the water helps with emulsification. Add the oil mix to the spray bottle with the rest of the warm water. Agitate well before and also regularly whilst spraying.

Applying your Oils:

Spraying in the middle of a hot, sunny day can magnify the sun and cause leaf burn, so always
apply the mixture in the cool of early morning or late afternoon. Remember to agitate the spray bottle well before use, and regularly while spraying. Ensure that you spray underneath the leaves where insects commonly hide.

During the cooler times of the day beneficial daytime pollinators are not that active. Never spray plants if you can see beneficial pollinators like bees around the plants. Even organic sprays can be abused in the garden, so as they say “everything in moderation”.

NOTE: The strength of the oils will evaporate, so reapply to plants after rain, every week for protection, or every couple of days, as needed.

Storing Essential Oil Mixes

Try to mix up only sufficient spray to use in a day, or within 24 hours of mixing. Once exposed to water and oxygen, oil-based garden sprays begin to separate, degrade, and lose their effectiveness.

If you do have any left-over, store it in a glass bottle in a cool, dark place, not in your plastic spray bottle, as essential oils break down in plastic.  Agitate well before using again.

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Methods of applying Essential Oils

Garden Spray:

Mix 10-20 drops of Essential Oil in 1 Litre of water with an emulsifier. Shake well, and regularly while spraying down the foliage of plants. Make sure you get underneath the leaves where pests like to shelter, and lightly spraying the soil around your plants will also help.

Drenching:

Some essential oils are recommended for drenching the soil around plants to keep them healthy. This allows the roots to absorb the nutrients naturally. Chamomile and Basil are good examples.

For drenching 8-10 drops of essential oil is mixed into a 5L watering can and agitated vigorously before drenching the soil. A drop or two of gentle liquid soap can be added to help it emulsify.

Cotton Ball Method:

To target specific insects in large numbers, like ant hills or rodent burrows, take some cotton balls and add a few drops of essential oils to them. Next, place the cotton ball right onto the ant hill, burrow or other insect grouping. This will cause them to relocate immediately. If that doesn’t work immediately you should repeat the process using a stronger solution.

You can also rub the oils onto any hard surfaces regularly to create a long-lasting barrier.

Deter Slugs and Snails

Bury a small glass container into the soil so its rim is perfectly level with the ground. Add 3-4 drops of pine oil into the container. The scent is highly offensive to slugs and snails, keeping them away from your prized plants. Renew the oil after heavy watering or rain.

Post-Harvest Protection

Fumigation:

Essential oils are heavily researched today for their potential in keeping stored agricultural crops pest free. Results show that they can be introduced to sealed storage containers to deter pests and affect adult development of agricultural storage insect like weevils and beetles. For smaller storage spaces the oils can be diffused in the room.

Protection:

Add a few drops of pure essential oil to porous clay pucks or sachets and place them inside sealed storage containers. The released fumes safely repel beetles and other pests without diminishing seed viability or germination rates.

Impregnating storage bags with parsley essential oil has been studied as a tool to manage and repel crop-destroying insects of stored agricultural crops, without using harmful chemical residues.

The cotton wool method and diffusing, as described above, is also effective in pantries and small storage spaces.

Is there a waiting period before harvesting?

You should not eat vegetables and fruits immediately after spraying them with essential oils. These oils are highly concentrated and consuming them without a waiting period or proper cleaning can cause digestive upset, inflammation, or irritation of the mouth and oesophagus.

Essential oils degrade in sunlight and waiting 24 hours should be sufficient. Ensure that you always wash your food well and all will be fine.

Can I use a diffuser indoors if I have pets?

Pets have highly sensitive respiratory tracts, so if you are diffusing essential oils in the home, purchase an ultrasonic water-based diffuser, as the nebulizing models spray micro-droplets of oil which can trigger respiratory distress in pets, and can cause coughing, sneezing, or asthma flare-ups. If micro-droplets land on a pet's coat and are ingested when they groom themselves, it can cause toxicity upon ingestion. Birds and cats are especially at risk.

How to diffuse safely

Ensure that your diffuser is in a place where your pet cannot knock it over and potentially expose themselves to the oils.

Diffuse in moderation, using only a few drops (3-5) of essential oil in a water-based diffuser, and run the diffuser for short periods of no more than 30 minutes. Keep- spaces well-ventilated and ensure that your pet can easily leave the room if the oils are irritating them.

Avoid certain essential oils:

Completely avoid toxic oils such as Wintergreen, Tea Tree, Eucalyptus, Cinnamon, Clove, Peppermint, Citrus, and Pine which are highly toxic to both cats and dogs, and can result in organ failure or seizures.

Non-toxic essential oils for pets

When diffusing essential oils around pets stick to options that are not toxic to pets like: Lavender, Frankincense, and Chamomile.

For dogs: Lavender, Bergamot, and Sandalwood are generally safe when used in low concentrations and if they are well-dispersed in the space. These oils have a calming effect and can help reduce stress.

Warning Signs:

If your pet shows symptoms of essential oil toxicity—such as drooling, vomiting, wobbling, or tremors, seek immediate veterinary care.

In Conclusion:

I cannot guarantee you a 100% pest-free garden, but using essential oils for pest control will allow you to have at least a 90% pest-free garden 100% organically!

When used in conjunction with other organic gardening methods, essential oils promote the obtainment of healthy, bountiful harvests without toxic residues, while respecting the environment and the garden's biodiversity.

If you’re looking to promote healthy growth in your garden, a good starting point is ensuring your plants have good soil and the nutrients they need. Plants also need to be watered correctly, as a water stressed plant is vulnerable to attack, and overwatering encourages fungal diseases.  Good gardening practices, used in combination with essential oils, can help create a vibrant, thriving garden that’s naturally resistant to pests and disease.

The last bit of advice is to just give different essential oils a try. You may find that one type works better than others in different areas of your garden. With a little patience and testing in the garden, you will find something natural and non-toxic that suits both you and your plants.

I hope this article has inspired you to treat yourself and your plant family to the wonderful benefits of essential oils.

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King ProteaThere are flowers we admire because they are beautiful, and there are flowers we admire because - once we understand them - we realise just how extraordinary they are. There are flowers that are useful. There are flowers that are culturally and nationally important, historically significant, paleontological salient, economically valuable, ecologically essential, and flowers that are instantly recognisable and majestic. Proteas - the flower that holds a world - belong to all these categories.

Beauty is not the opposite of survival: sometimes, beauty and survival intersect. Look closely enough at a protea and the boundary between flower and artwork begins to disappear. Its stately flower heads can be enormous, delicate, architectural and almost otherworldly. Some appear to be made from velvet; others from feathers, scales or flames. Their kaleidoscopic colours range from soft creams and greens to pinks, reds and deep burgundies. Their forms seem to belong simultaneously to the worlds of botany, sculpture, imagination and the supernatural. The protea is beautiful because of its evolutionary history, its adaptations and its resilience - not in spite of them.

In nature, fractal-like patterns can be seen in branching trees, certain leaves, some fruits and vegetables, river systems, the intricate networks of veins within leaves, and even in snowflakes - where similar shapes or structures repeat at different scales. Proteas can display fractal-like qualities through their repeated patterns and intricate structures. Proteas aren't true mathematical fractals, though their structures are perceptibly analogous. A flower head contains many flowers, while the plant's branching and growth patterns create other forms of natural repetition. Proteas reward every level of attention. From far away they’re exquisite. Closer up, they’re fascinating. Closer still, they become remarkable. The patterns of nature do not stop at the edge of a flower. Nature rarely creates beauty in a single stroke: it builds it through repetition, variation and connection. Challenge our simplistic expectations of what a flower should look like, this may also explain why proteas have such a strong presence in human culture. We are naturally drawn to patterns, symmetry, colour and complexity.

Protea flowers are among the most distinctive in the plant kingdom, but what appears to be a single large flower is actually a flower head (an inflorescence) made up of dozens to hundreds of tiny individual flowers, known as florets. These florets are densely packed into a central dome or cone and surrounded by large, often brightly coloured bracts - specialised modified leaves that protect the developing flowers and attract pollinators. The result is something that feels simultaneously familiar and alien. They are also tactile flowers. Their surfaces invite closer inspection: soft hairs, hard scales, waxy leaves, papery textures and intricate patterns. They photograph beautifully because they offer so many layers of detail. Proteas have character. They suggest resilience. They are flowers shaped by fire, poor soils, wind, drought and the relentless forces of evolution - and yet they emerge from this difficult world with sublime elegance.

Protea caffra Picture courtesy MadibriA name worthy of a shape-shifter

The name Protea comes from Proteus, a shape-shifting figure in Greek mythology. The name was chosen by Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus in 1735, inspired by the remarkable variety of shapes and forms found among protea species. In Greek mythology, Proteus was an ancient sea god known as the "Old Man of the Sea," a shepherd of Poseidon's sea creatures who possessed knowledge of the past, present and future. He was famously reluctant to share his wisdom and would use his singular ability to shape-shift into animals, trees, fire or water to escape anyone who tried to capture him. His name is associated with the ancient Greek root prōtos, meaning "first" or "primary," and the word protean, meaning changeable or capable of assuming many forms. It was this remarkable diversity of form that has made the mythological figure an apt namesake for a group of plants renowned for their variety of shapes. In Homer’s book The Odyssey, Greek hero Menelaus caught Proteus on the island of Pharos, holding tight through all the shape-shifts until the deity gave him directions home.

From epic tales to ecological wonder; the protea is a survivor of fire and drought, and a specialist of growing in nutrient-poor soils. It is a source of food for birds, insects and mammals. A partner in intricate ecological relationships. A product of millions of years of evolution. An important part of South Africa's horticultural economy. A symbol of a country. And, perhaps most importantly, a living ambassador for one of the most extraordinary ecosystems on the planet: the Cape Floral Kingdom. The Cape region of South Africa is famous for its fynbos shrubland made up of approximately 9,000 species, 70 percent of which is found nowhere else. Among its most striking flowers are proteas, including the king protea, a regal bloom which has a large, crown-like flower head.

A masterpiece of adaptation

Proteas evolved in a difficult world. Fynbos soils are often exceptionally low in essential nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen. For many plants, this would be a severe disadvantage. For proteas and their relatives, it became an evolutionary challenge to solve. Many Proteaceae have specialised proteoid roots, also called cluster roots. Instead of producing a few ordinary roots, these plants develop dense clusters of short lateral rootlets. These structures dramatically increase the surface area available for nutrient absorption and can release organic compounds into the soil that help make otherwise inaccessible nutrients available to the plant. It is an elegant solution to an apparently inhospitable environment.

The protea also has a special relationship with fire. Fynbos is a fire-driven ecosystem, and many of its plants have evolved strategies that allow them not merely to survive fire, but to reproduce in a landscape where fire is an ecological necessity. Some proteas are resprouters. Their above-ground stems may burn, but protected buds or underground structures allow them to regenerate. Others are reseeders. The adult plant may be killed by fire, but its seeds survive in specialised structures and are released after the fire has passed. In some species, the old flower heads remain attached to the plant for years, forming woody structures that protect the seeds which can act almost like natural seed banks suspended above the ground.

The protea also offers us a lesson in resilience. Fynbos soils are often extremely poor in nutrients, particularly phosphorus. To survive in these conditions, many members of the Proteaceae have developed specialised structures known as proteoid, or cluster, roots. These dense clusters of fine rootlets increase the plant's ability to access scarce nutrients and are part of a sophisticated adaptation to its environment. They remind us that biodiversity is not an abstract scientific concept. It has a face. It has a shape. It has colour. It blooms.

Protes repens Picture courtesy Madibri Proteas and the global flower trade

In 2025 South Africa exported approximately ZAR1.21 billion worth of cut flowers, with King Proteas - our largest flower export accounting for close to ZAR 275 million of the total. This economic importance is itself worth recognising. Protea cultivation contributes to horticulture and provides livelihoods, while the global popularity of these flowers helps introduce people around the world to South Africa's botanical heritage. South African-grown proteas and other fynbos flowers are a notable part of an international cut-flower industry, with their unusual forms and excellent vase life making them highly desirable in floral arrangements. Species such as Protea magnifica are cultivated for export because of their long stems, long-lasting flower heads and good ‘vase life’. However, the cultivation of proteas near wild populations can raise conservation concerns when genetic material from cultivated plants mixes with natural populations. The challenge is therefore to ensure that our appreciation of proteas does not come at the expense of the ecosystems that created them.

A protea grown for export may travel across the world, but the wild protea belongs to a much larger story. The diverse Proteaceae family has more than 350 species in South Africa - out of more than 1,700 known species in the Southern hemisphere. Its status as our national flower offers the King Protea some protection, but today almost half of South Africa's other protea species face extinction because of pressures on their native habitats in the Western Cape, with certain species that only occur in tiny pocketed ranges - making them uniquely vulnerable. The threats to our proteas and fynbos in general include habitat loss due to human development and agriculture, the proliferation of invasive alien species such as acacia cyclops (Rooikrans) and inappropriate fire regimes that are occurring too frequently due to climate change. Most proteas are endemic to the Cape Floral Kingdom biome that stretches across the southern tip of South Africa - one of the world's richest flora biodiversity hotspots. However, over the past 40 to 50 years we have converted a lot of lowland fynbos for wine and wheat farming, and other forms of agriculture - due largely to the desirability of their alkaline soils - pressing fynbos biomes such as the fractured Renosterveld into critically endangered territory.

The flower that feeds a web of life

A protea flower head is a biological marketplace. Its nectar can provide essential energy to birds and insects, while the flowers facilitate pollination by a variety of visitors. Cape Sugarbirds are perhaps the most famous protea associates. These remarkable birds are strongly linked to protea-rich habitats, feeding on nectar and helping to transfer pollen between plants. Sunbirds also visit proteas, as do bees, beetles, moths and other insects, with up to 2,000 individual insect visits to a single flowerhead during its flowering season. This diversity of pollination strategies reflects the adaptability of the Proteaceae. Different species have evolved different relationships with their pollinators, and these relationships help explain the astonishing variety of flower shapes, scents and structures found within the family. Protea seeds can become food for birds and mammals. Their structures provide habitat and shelter for small organisms. These relationships remind us that a flower is not an isolated object. It is a meeting place. Even a single flower can represent an entire network of relationships. Their flowers support pollinator populations. Their roots interact with the soil microbiome. Their presence is an important part of a complex network of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms that collectively make up fynbos.

Protea neriifolia 'Blackbeard' Picture courtesy Madibri A flower family in decline

Today nearly half of South Africa’s protea flowering plant species face extinction, with some wild populations having dwindled to a single individual hanging on by a thread. The International Union for Conservation of Nature’s Red List of Threatened Species - the world’s indicator of the health of species biodiversity - has in recent years released a comprehensive assessment of the southern Hemisphere’s protea plant family, finding 637 of the 1464 known species are vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered. The outlook for these plants is not promising. The assessment, carried out by the South African National Biodiversity Institute [SANBI] and fynbos experts, revealed that 47 percent [165 of 353] of local species face extinction - demonstrating clearly for the first time that our South African species are among the most threatened.

When fire passes, the protea remembers how to begin again. Some species can resprout after fire, regenerating from protected parts of the plant. Others are killed by fire but reproduce through seeds that have been protected until the conditions are right for germination. In some species, seeds are held in old flower heads for extended periods, waiting for fire to clear the vegetation and create an opportunity for new growth. But it also reminds us that resilience has limits. Fire must occur at the right intervals. If fires become too frequent, plants may not have enough time to mature and produce seed. The relationship between proteas and fire is therefore not a simple story of destruction followed by renewal. It is a finely balanced ecological process, and different species have evolved different requirements. The protea is resilient, but it is not indestructible - a distinction that matters in a changing world.

The flowerbeds of the world’s devices

The protea has become such a powerful symbol. It represents South Africa not simply because it is beautiful, but because it embodies something fundamental about the country itself: extraordinary diversity shaped by extraordinary conditions.

Says Gill Simpson, founder and director of the Wild Rescue nature reserve, “To appreciate proteas fully is to appreciate them in context. It is to understand that the flower is only one part of the story. The landscape matters. The soil matters. The fire matters. The pollinators matter. The surrounding plants matter. And the people who protect these ecosystems matter. This is perhaps the greatest reason we should appreciate proteas: they give us a way to appreciate the interconnectedness of nature. In an age when biodiversity loss can sometimes feel distant and overwhelming, the protea gives us something tangible to care about. It gives us a flower we can recognise and a story we can understand. We can look at it and know that it represents something larger. It represents the fynbos. It represents South Africa. It represents resilience. It represents biodiversity. It represents the creativity of evolution. And it represents the fragile relationship between humans and the natural world.”

It is fitting that the protea should have a place not only in our landscapes but also in our language. We live in a world where we increasingly communicate through images. Emojis have become part of the way we express ourselves, allowing a tiny symbol to carry meaning across languages and borders. We have digital flowers representing roses, sunflowers, cherry blossoms and many other familiar blooms. If an emoji is a tiny ambassador for the things we value, then the protea deserves consideration.

Protea emojiA protea emoji would not simply represent a flower. It could represent South Africa. It could represent fynbos. It could represent biodiversity. It could represent resilience and renewal. It could represent the idea that something can be both beautiful and ecologically important. Most importantly, it could help introduce this distinguished plant to people who may never have encountered one in the wild. Of course, no emoji can replace the experience of seeing a protea growing in its natural habitat. No digital symbol can capture the scale of a king protea, the texture of its bracts, the scent of the surrounding vegetation or the sound of a sugarbird moving through the flowers.

The Wild Rescue nature reserve is currently campaigning to bring a protea emoji to the Unicode Standard of the world’s devices. An improved level of awareness and appreciation will contribute to helping protect our natural fynbos habitats, and encourage simple actions that can make profound differences. The protea has travelled from the mountains of the Cape to gardens and flower markets around the world. Perhaps its next journey is onto everyone’s digital platforms.

Click here to read my article "Proteas - the ancient shapeshifters". It includes information on the various species and their hybrids: How to use Proteas in the garden; Cultivation; Propagation; Problems, Pests and Diseases.

Drought Picture by klimkin from pixabayMeteorologists are warning that a severe El Niño could develop in 2026, triggering significant concerns for South African’s and especially our farmers. Forecasters indicate an 80-90% chance of very strong El Niño conditions persisting through summer with above-average temperatures, dry spells and even drought. There are many ways you can save on water and still keep your plants alive. This article will show you the options you have, and the sooner you start to prepare your garden the better.

El Niño is a natural climate event where sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean warm up. This warming shifts weather patterns worldwide. For South Africa, it usually means drier and hotter weather, especially in the summer-rainfall regions.

The effects are evident even now, as this winter South Africa is experiencing unusually warm temperatures, and also drier conditions in our winter-rainfall regions.

Tips to Help Your Garden Survive El Niño Conditions

Stop pruning and fertilising:

South African gardeners love to prune their shrubs and trees in spring before fertilising their garden beds and lawns. This encourages plants to push out new growth, but this new growth is very tender and needs extra water to survive. Therefore, during El Niño conditions it is advised to keep pruning to a minimum, and not to fertilise at all. A layer of good organic mulch will suffice.

Although traditionally the pruning of evergreens is done in spring, trends are changing and many people are now staggering their pruning throughout the summer to protect nesting birds. Spring is the happiest time for all our garden birds which do not migrate - they have survived the harsh winter, often with a little help from humans who provide them with scraps of food and water, so please give a  thought for the birds nesting in your garden.

Members can click here to read my article on how we can adjust our pruning times in order to accommodate nesting birds. You will also find articles on how to attract wildlife to your garden, plus plant lists.

Change how you use water

Instead of watering a little bit every day, you should always water deeply and less often. This encourages plants to grow long, deep roots so they can find water hidden deep in the ground.

Water during the coolest time of the day

Watering in the cool of early morning, late afternoon or early evening, gives plants time to drink before the hot sun evaporates the water.

Create a dish of soil to avoid water runoff

For plants in the ground that do need regular watering, create a shallow ridge of soil around the base of the plant roughly the size of a large plate. This will allow water to collect is the bowl, and prevent it from running away from the plant.

Wilt check

In the middle of the day when the sun is the hottest, many plants like fuchsias wilt as a natural defence mechanism, even if the soil is still moist. This can be misleading because it looks like the plant needs water when it’s actually fine. If you check the plant again in the evening or early morning, it may have perked-up again and not need water. If the plant is still wilting, yes it probably needs watering.

Don’t water established plants

Concentrate any watering on new plantings and plants growing in pots. New plants won’t have had time to grow deep roots and pots have limited compost for moisture retention.

Most established shrubs and trees will be resilient to drought, and will get by with an occasional deep watering or no watering at all for long periods.

Established summer perennials will also survive with little or no water during a drought. Perennials will naturally go dormant under drought conditions to conserve energy, only to spring back to life again once the rains return.

Let the lawn go

Grass is very tough, so if you are short on water, stop mowing and watering your lawn altogether. It will turn brown and go dormant, but will come back to life when the rain returns.

Reduce lawn areas

Most lawns require a lot of water, so carefully consider how much lawn you really need and use it only where it is really prudent. Evaluate your garden and eliminate grass in certain areas, replacing it with pebbles, crush, paving, decking, or hardy perennials and groundcovers.

Do not use grass to stabilize soil on slopes where it may be difficult to irrigate and water runoff could be a problem; rather select plants with low water and maintenance requirements.

Efficient Irrigation

Gardeners tend to water more than we need too, and installing the correct irrigation system will water your plants efficiently and reduce water evaporation, saving you a fortune on water bills.

When good rains fall, stop watering, except where structures such as walls, roof overhangs and large trees and shrubs have prevented the rain from penetrating.

Drip Irrigation and Soaker Hoses

Sprinklers lose a lot of water to the wind and air, so use drip irrigation or soaker hoses instead, as these methods drip or slowly soak the water directly into the soil right where the roots are. A drip irrigation system will supply a continuous drip for a longer period than if you were to run your regular sprinkler heads. It is used mainly to irrigate trees, shrubs, flower boarders and vegetable gardens. Drip irrigation works well for garden beds where the plants have similar water requirements.

Sprinkler Irrigation

If you already have a sprinkler irrigation system installed check your spray heads regularly to ensure that they are not spraying unnecessary surfaces like driveways and other hard surfaces.

Install a Timer System

If you install a timer system, reset it according to the seasons. Proper maintenance of your irrigation system and adjusting your water flow throughout the seasons will conserve a lot of water. 

Harvest Rainwater

Don’t waste rainwater it’s easy to harvest it from the roof, the driveway and patios. Direct it into water tanks, large bins or even reservoirs which can be hidden underground. This won’t necessarily be sufficient for the whole garden, but it will be enough for new plants and those that need more regular watering.

Install a Grey Water System

Grey water systems capture and recycle water from baths and showers, and even washing machines, if you use cleaning products that are safe for garden use.

For Pots

For pots, soak all of the soil when watering while avoiding lots of water pouring out of the bottom. Move pots into more shady areas of the garden. During prolonged hot and dry weather even potted plants that usually enjoy full sun will appreciate some shade during the hottest time of the day. More shade will prevent the plant and pot from overheating and losing water through transpiration and evaporation.

During times of drought, adding drip trays to collect the runoff water from pots is a good practice as the water will not be standing for long in the trays.

Cover your Swimming Pool

Cover your swimming pool to reduce evaporation and install a holding tank for backwash water so that it can be returned to the pool.

Leave Water for Wildlife

Check bird baths regularly and add small shallow containers with water for bees and other insects.

Soil Amendment

Good soil is a must for plants to develop deep-root systems which can endure drought. Incorporating organic matter into the soil is important for a number of reasons, including water retention, and a lack of initial soil preparation is a major reason for plants not thriving generally.

Soils can vary from one part of the garden to the next, and no matter what soil type you have, but especially if you have sand or clay, the addition of organic matter like compost will greatly improve your chances for success.

Clay soil is dense and does not allow oxygen to penetrate or water to be readily absorbed, causing wasteful runoff and making it difficult for roots to grow. Sandy soil allows the water to drain away too quickly for the plants to absorb it effectively.

To correct these problems you need to improve the soil. If the soil is hard and compacted, dig the compost in as deeply as you can. If this is done properly from the start, you shouldn't have to dig the soil over again, as this disturbs the natural cycle of the soil. Alternatively you could choose plants that thrive in sandy or clay soil, but then your plant selection will be restricted.

Use Mulches

Mulch acts like a protective blanket by minimizing evaporation, retarding weed growth, slowing erosion, and helping to prevent soil temperature fluctuations. Good degradable mulches include compost, bark or wood chips, and straw. Mulch has the added benefit of decomposing over time, thus improving the soil.

Replenish your mulch once or twice a year but do not apply it thicker than a couple of centimetres and never heap it right up against the stems of your trees and shrubs.

Gravel as a mulch

Rocks, pebbles and crush can be used as mulch, but in hot and arid climates very large expanses of rocks or paving should be avoided if they are sited in full sun, as they will retain heat around your plants. In hot climates lighter coloured pebbles will retain less heat than say black ones, so bear this in mind. For a Mediterranean-style garden create a gravel garden around your plants using 5-7cm of gravel as the mulch.

Members can click here to read my article on the ins and outs of mulching

Hard Impermeable Surfaces

Impermeable surfaces like paving reflect heat, making your plants thirstier, and if they are concreted in this will prevent rainwater from seeping into the soil. Lift some of the pavers or bricks to make ‘soak away’ areas where water can sink in.

Xeriscaping & Water-Wise Gardening

Xeriscapes can be beautiful as well as drought-tolerant, and by using a variety of leaf, flower and berry colours, together with textures and fragrance, you can create a delightful garden for the senses. Even during times of drought and water restrictions, xeriscape gardens retain much of their beauty while conventional, water-thirsty landscapes suffer.

Water-wise gardening implements the basic principles of Xeriscape gardening, with the most important one being the practice of selecting plants with water requirements corresponding to your local rainfall patterns and climate, as well as for their drought tolerance; thus significantly reducing the need to water.

This water efficient method of gardening can be adapted to many different types of gardens and using the principles of xeriscape gardening will allow you to plant and maintain your annuals, perennials, vegetables, shrubs and trees in the most water-wise manner possible.

Xeriscaping provides practical solutions to various climate and landscape concerns. It includes placing plantings and structures where they can be used to cool a home in the summer or warm it in the winter. These are also used to block strong winds and to provide shelter from rain and snow, as well as to control surface drainage.

Make use of the xeriscaping concept of zoning, in which plants with similar sun and water needs are grouped together in specific zones. If you have a large garden, design it so that the highly visible areas have irrigation, but the rest of the garden has broad areas requiring little maintenance or watering.

A landscape adapted to the environment will require less watering and maintenance, less fertiliser, and will also reduce the use of pesticides and other chemicals. By using the principles of xeriscaping, you can be assured of an attractive, healthy landscape that uses just the right amount of water.

Members can click here to find tips on water-wise gardening and water-wise plant lists.

Firescaping your Property

Did you know that Africa is known as “the fire continent” as more of Africa burns each year than any other continent on Earth? El Niño conditions greatly increase the danger of wildfires, so being “fire-wise” should be a priority during these conditions, and it’s vital to protect your home and suburb against wildfires.

Members can click here to find several articles on firescaping your garden in zones, plus lists of plants suitable for firescaping your home and property.

Can I still plant during an El Niño cycle?

Weather can be unpredictable and conditions may not be as severe as predicted, so if you want to plant a few new shrubs or trees, or perhaps some herbs and veggies, if you amend the soil and are able to water them as required, you certainly can. However, I do not recommend intensive landscaping if severe El Niño conditions have already set in.

In Conclusion

Gardeners are very resilient and so are many plants, and a little foresight, planning and implementing methods that suit your type of garden, will go a long way in ensuring your garden survives a drought.

Click here to read the article under water-wise gardening

Key strategies for growing vegetables during long hot and dry seasons include; improving soil health and mulching, implementing water-saving methods, making smart plant choices, and intercropping.

Timing:

For vegetable crops, water is most critical during the first few weeks of development, and immediately after transplanting. Once your seedlings are established you can water more moderately, but once they start flowering you will need to increase watering until harvest time.

Water your vegetable garden early in the morning before the sun gets too hot. This stops the water from evaporating into the air before the plants can absorb it. If you can’t water early, watering in the late afternoon is also fine, but try to water at ground level so as not to wet the foliage. This is important for vegetables like tomatoes which are prone to fungal diseases, and leaving the leaves wet overnight makes them more susceptible to diseases.

Water deeply and less frequently

It is always better to water plants thoroughly but less often, rather than light sprinklings every day. For vegetable gardens, water slowly so the water sinks down 15-20cm, this encourages the roots to grow deeper, making the plants stronger.

Check soil moisture regularly

Check soil moisture regularly to avoid over watering. If necessary dig down about 10-15cm into the soil and if it is dry you can water again. If it is still moist, good garden soil will stick together if a handful is squeezed into a ball.

Checking moisture levels regularly is especially important if you are using mulch, as mulched beds will hold moisture in the soil for longer periods of time.

Potted vegetables

If you are growing vegetables in containers, check them every day, as plants growing in pots will need more frequent watering. During hot and dry summers, and in times of drought, placing drip trays underneath your pots to collect excess water will benefit container grown vegetables.

Efficient Irrigation

Instead of a regular sprinkler, use a soaker hose or drip line. Drip or trickle irrigation is ideal in the vegetable garden, reducing water usage by about 50%. A soaker hose allows water to seep out all along its length at a slow rate, making it probably the least expensive and easiest to way to water a vegetable garden. Soaker hoses run at low pressure, for only 10 to 15 minutes per irrigation. 

Other DIY options include making your own drip line using old hose pipes or plastic tubing, pinning them down  on the ground around vegetables, and inserting tiny holes in them for the water to drip out.

Collect rain water

Installing a rain water tank will pay you back for many years to come, and especially during times of drought and water restrictions.

If a rain water tank is not an option, invest in a couple of plastic dustbins or any other containers or barrels and place them where they can collect runoff from your roof, you will be surprised at how much a single rainstorm can collect.

Incorporate organic matter into your soil

Compost is like a sponge and mixing it into your garden beds helps the soil hold onto water for much longer. If your soil is sandy, hard or compacted, thoroughly dig over the beds to about a shovel blade depth, incorporating as much organic material like compost as you can afford into the soil before planting. If your soil is in a good condition and you are practicing no-till gardening methods, simply add a generous layer of compost to the top of the soil before planting your vegetables.

Vegetables growing in containers require a good potting soil which holds moisturer well but which also drains well. Adding water retaining granules or vermiculite to the soil helps to retain water for much longer and is well worth the cost.

Use Mulch:

Growing vegetables in dry climates is all about saving every drop of water and keeping the sun from drying out your soil. Mulching minimizes evaporation of water from the soil surface, reducing the need to water by around 50%.

Do not use wood or bark chips in a vegetable veggie patch that requires annual soil preparation. The chips will interfere with future seedbed preparation. You can use dry grass clippings and leaves or straw. Do not apply the mulch too thick, a 5cm layer is sufficient.

The looser the material the more you need to watch out for slugs and snails that can hide in the mulch.

Planting Strategies

If you anticipate a dry season plant fewer crops, selecting vegetables that your family loves and the varieties that grow best in your garden.

Intercropping and planting densely in blocks rather than in traditional long rows is a strategy that organic gardens employ in their gardens as this creates shade for plant roots and reduces water evaporation.

Group vegetables with similar watering needs together

Different vegetables have different water requirements for the best production. If you plant your garden without taking the water needs of individual plants into consideration, you could end up overwatering some plants, and under watering others. Instead, focus on giving plants the perfect amount of moisture by grouping vegetables in your drought tolerant garden according to their watering requirements.

Weeds

Weed regularly as weeds compete with vegetables for water and nutrients. They can also harbour pests and diseases.

Wind

Wind will dry out soil quickly, so on windy site provide windbreaks around your vegetable patch to reduce evaporation.

Drought Tolerant Vegetables

In South Africa many new varieties and cultivars of vegetable crops are now available to gardeners which are specifically bred for their drought resistance and their ability to thrive in hot, arid climates. Some crops are naturally more tolerant of these conditions, so choosing your selection carefully will greatly increase your chances for success during very hot and dry seasons.

Cos Lettuce Lettuce

Lettuce is a cool season crop and does not enjoy the high temperatures of summer. Most lettuce varieties will bolt (flower) at the first sign of heat. However many varieties are more resilient to bolting if they can be watered regularly, and are shaded from the fierce midday and afternoon sun.

Heat and bolt resistant summer varieties, and all year round lettuce varieties and blends are becoming more freely available online in South Africa.

'Butter'

Butter lettuce is a great year round lettuce variety to grow as it can take the winter cold and also has high heat and bolting resistance. Leaves can be harvested as required, and later in the season the heads can be allowed to form.

'Arania'

Arania is a French heirloom with bright green leaves, and is a cut-and-come-again lettuce with a crisp and nutty flavour. It will grow better in your garden over the warmer months, as it copes well with heat stress and is bolt resistant.

'Bronze Arrow'

This heirloom variety is also known as 'Bronze Beauty' and named for its lovely oak leaf shaped leaves which are a light to dark green with red-brown tinges on the edges. It is both cold hardy and heat tolerant, and because it is slow bolting it does well during the warmer months. This loose leaf variety is full of flavour and has a firm yet silky mouth-feel. To extend your harvest time, pick a few leaves as required from each plant, cutting from the outer leaves inwards.

'Cos'

Cos lettuce is loved for its extremely crispy, deep green, slightly crinkled leaves. The plant forms an upright loose head of lettuce, and individual leaves can be harvested as required, or the whole head can be harvested once mature. It is known to have a high heat and bolt resistance.

'Jericho'

Jericho is an open-pollinated cos-type lettuce variety developed in Israel. It is suitable for commercial production of baby leaf lettuce, as it produces very dense, bright green heads that are crisp and sweet, and tends to keep its sweet flavour even on hot days. Jericho has high resistance to heat, bolting and tip-burn.

'Iceberg'

Iceberg set the standard for a crisp-head lettuce, and although its flavour is mild, this lettuce makes up for this with its crisp and crunchy texture. Its high bolt and heat resistance, together with its ability to keep once picked has earned it a place as a favourite among home gardeners and farmers.

'Great Lakes'

Great Lakes could be described as the first modern “Iceberg” lettuce. It remains a farming standard for commercial growers as it is a consistent producer of good-sized, round heads that are easy to pick. Great lakes lettuce is heat and cold tolerant, with a strong resistance to bolting and tip-burn. The leaves are crisp and tender with wonderful flavour, perfect for sandwiches and salads.

'Michelle'

One of the best varieties to grow in spring as Michelle has high heat and bolt resistance and can handle the heat better than most. This is a Batavian-type variety that is generally green and speckled with red in summer, but as soon as there is a bit of cold, a beautiful deep wine-red colour becomes more apparent.

'Nevada'

Nevada is a Batavian-type lettuce that grows well in all climates. It has high heat, bolt and tip-burn resistance, and is also resistant to bottom rot, downy mildew, and lettuce mosaic virus. This tall, bright green, open-head lettuce sports thick leaves that are deliciously crunchy and buttery.

EggPlantR NooraSiddiqBrinjals/Eggplants

Eggplant is a warm-season crop that originated in India and Southeast Asia over 1,500 years ago. It thrives in high humidity and requires high temperatures for germination and good overall growth.

This high-yield vegetable is perfect for your garden during periods of heat and drought as it does not require as much water as other garden vegetables once it is established, and too much water can even cause root-rot. Give it 15cm of water once or twice a week; and it can grow nicely with even less than this. Severe lack of water causes smaller fruits and lower harvest totals.

Use drip irrigation or soaker hoses to avoid wetting the leaves in humid weather. Space your plants adequately and prune away the lower leaves to improve air circulation, which helps prevents fungal problems during humid periods.

'Black Beauty'

Black Beauty originated in India and Southeast Asia, and the specific "Black Beauty" cultivar was bred in 1902 and popularized as an American open-pollinated heirloom garden staple. In South Africa this variety remains a classic heritage standard, producing large, glossy dark purple, bell-shaped or oval fruits. The firm but tender flesh is creamy-white with a mild taste.

'Long Purple'

Long Purple is an old open pollinated Italian heirloom variety that traces its deeper ancestral roots to Asia, where wild eggplants originated. The slender, smooth and glossy fruit is a beautiful dark purple, and the flesh is creamy white with small, edible seeds. It is best used before they are 20-25cm long.

'Ping Tung'

Ping Tung is an outstanding variety that is named after its home town in Taiwan where it thrives in intense heat and humidity. The skin of the long fruit starts out a light purple and darkens with maturity, and the tender flesh has a superbly sweet flavour.

'Thai Long'

Thai Long is an heirloom eggplant from Thailand, where it thrives in the heat and humidity, and is grown as a perennial vegetable. This is a very prolific cropping variety that produces light-green fruits that grow up to 25cm long. The flesh is white with a pleasant, mild flavour.

Chillies Peppers

Chilli peppers are tropical plants ideally suited to hot, humid and moist tropical and subtropical conditions, however, they are very adaptable and if they can be watered regularly they will do well even in semi-arid regions.

Sweet Bell Peppers are probably the most well know of the peppers but they are not drought tolerant. In fact they are highly sensitive to water stress, needing consistently moist soil and regular watering to produce healthy fruit.

Several Chilli Pepper varieties can handle short dry spells, recovering well if you miss a watering. However during times of drought all pepper varieties will only do well if watered regularly. Established plants need water when the top 2.5cm of the soil dries out, and they should not be allowed to wilt. Give plants a deep soak less often instead of a light splash every day. Mulching around the plants also helps retain moisture in the soil.

Peppers do not set fruit well or reach their best yield under severe drought stress. Extended dry periods cause blossom drop, reduce fruit set, and stunt growth. Irregular watering also leads to tough skin or uneven growth.

What peppers are the most drought-tolerant?

The most drought-hardy chilli pepper varieties are wild and semi-wild types, specifically Chiltepin, Pequin, Cayenne, Poblano and African Bird's Eye. Mild drought stress can actually increase their capsaicin production, making them even hotter.

‘Chiltepin’

Chiltepin is the wild ancestor of most cultivated peppers and it survives harsh arid conditions with minimal moisture by developing deep root systems.

‘Pequin’

Pequin produces small, fiery peppers on woody, tough plants that tolerate intense heat and dry spells much better than standard bell or large-fruited cultivars.

‘African Bird's Eye/Peri-Peri’

African Bird's Eye is a shrubby, semi-wild perennial species native to lower-moisture, tropical and subtropical regions, and handles irregular watering well.

‘Cayenne’

 Cayenne is a standard cultivated hot pepper known for its robust, deep roots and strong performance in hot, dry summer climates.

'Poblano'  

Poblano is a larger fruited Mexican chilli that demonstrates better than average resilience to temporary dry soil conditions.

TomatoR MattDuaneGriffinTomatoes

Tomatoes have long roots that can pull moisture from deep within the soil, so once they are established they tend to be hardier to drought than many other vegetables. However, during hot and dry summers they will still need an occasional deep watering. Many varieties are recommended as being heat resistant and others will take both heat and high humidity.

‘Cherokee Purple’

Cherokee Purple is a big tomato with the big flavour typical of black tomatoes. It is among the top heat-tolerant heirlooms for hot climates, but is subject to fungal infections in warm, humid and wet conditions.

‘Floradade’

Floradade was developed by the University of Florida, USA, and is specifically adapted to thrive and set fruit in hot, humid weather where other varieties fail. However it still requires regular, consistent watering to prevent stress and produce a good crop. It produces firm, smooth, medium-to-large red tomatoes with crack-resistant skin that continues to set fruit even in high temperatures.

‘Pineapple’

Pineapple is a large, meaty, very sweet and flavoursome beefsteak-type tomato, flashing a beautifully marbled flesh. It tolerates heat and drought better than many heirloom varieties, but produces larger, better-quality fruit if established bushes are watered weekly. Although pineapple tolerates humid summer conditions better than other delicate heirlooms, high humidity will require careful management to prevent fungal diseases.

‘Yellow Pear’

Yellow Pear is an heirloom tomato known for its distinct teardrop shape, bright yellow colour, and sweet, mild flavour. It is heat resistant and prefers moderate humidity around 65% to 85%, but is susceptible to fungal diseases if the air stays too wet.

‘Caro Rich’

Caro Rich was given this name as it contains roughly 10 times more beta-carotene than standard tomatoes. This lovely golden-orange beefsteak tomato has a sweet, well-balanced flavour. It is considered to be heat resistant, and fairly drought-resistant, performing well under dry or stressed soil conditions without easily cracking or developing blossom-end rot.

‘Amish Paste’

Amish Paste tomatoes are teardrop shaped and deep red with an amazing flavour. Once established, they are drought tolerant, and will take high heat.

Cucumber Cucumbers

Growing cucumbers in hot and dry summers can be a challenge, but by choosing the right varieties and adopting water-saving practices, you can achieve a productive harvest even in arid regions. Some cucumber varieties are specifically bred for heat and drought tolerance, while others thrive because of their natural adaptability to low water conditions.

‘Marketmore’

Marketmore is a classic, reliable heirloom variety known for its resilience, and one of the best cucumbers for dry climates. It produces fruits that stay uniformly dark green under heat stress, and the plant is resistant to common cucumber diseases, making Marketmore one of the best and widely adaptable slicing varieties available.

‘Lemon’

Lemon is surprisingly heat tolerant, and the thick skin of the fruit helps reduce moisture loss. Although round and yellowish in colour, this cucumber was named for its colour rather than its taste which is rather mild, sweet and cool.

‘Straight Eight’

Straight Eight’ is a classic slicing cucumber that produces straight, deep green fruits that are relatively large compared to other cucumbers. It is known for its ability to produce quality fruit even during heat waves, and the plant is also resistant to cucumber mosaic virus.

‘African Horned Cucumber’

This cucumber, also known as “Kiwano” or “Blowfish Fruit”, grows naturally in semi-arid and dry regions like the Kalahari, using its high moisture-storing jelly pulp as a water source. The spiky skin varies in colour from dark green to orange-yellow and isn’t edible. Inside, the flesh is a jelly-like green and full of edible seeds. The flavour is a wonderful cross between cucumber, zucchini and kiwi fruit. Be sure to remove the sharp points of the outside horns before working with them.

Once established, its deep roots make it drought-resistant, and in the garden or small farm it can survive with deep, infrequent watering, or entirely on rainfall. Being a desert plant it prefers hot, dry air rather than high humidity.

‘Armenian Yard Long’

Also known as ‘Cucumber Melon’, the Armenian yard long cucumber looks like a cucumber and tastes like a cucumber but is actually a type of melon that is best eaten in the green (cucumber) stage. The Armenian Yard Long has a soft sage colour compared to the Dark Green Armenian.

As these ‘cucumbers’ are technically a type of melon, like melons they are heat tolerant, excel in arid climates, and are heavy producers. Their long, ribbed fruits remain tender and sweet even in extreme heat, and the plants are highly efficient at conserving water.

Sliced with the skin on it produces beautiful scalloped cucumber slices that taste sweet and mild, and thanks to the lower water content of this cucumber it is good for braaiing or grilling and sautéing, and also pickling.

‘Painted Serpent’

This green and white striped ‘cucumber’ grows and curls into snake-like shapes. The fruit is mild and delicious and does not need to be peeled, but it’s best to scrub the fuzz from the skin before eating. As Painted Serpent is technically a type of melon, like melons it is heat tolerant, excels in arid climates, is a heavy producer, and well worth the space in your garden.

Swiss Chard

Once its deep root system is well-established Swiss chard is moderately drought-tolerant, surviving dry spells much better than true spinach because its deep roots reach moisture lower in the soil. Young plants need consistent, regular watering to grow strong and to avoid premature bolting (flowering).

During very hot and dry spells, established plants will need deep watering fairly regularly. Severe lack of water stunts leaf growth and makes the greens taste bitter or harsh. Although Swiss chard is heat tolerant, providing midday and afternoon shade during intense heat waves will reduce stress on the plants.

Okra Okra

Okra is considered quite drought hardy and heat-tolerant, featuring a deep taproot system that helps it find moisture deep in the soil. However, severe or prolonged dry spells will reduce pod yields and cause the pods to become tough and woody quickly.

Jerusalem Artichokes

Jerusalem artichokes are moderately to very drought-hardy once they are established. They tolerate dry spells well, though extreme or long-term lack of water will lower your overall tuber yield. Young plants need regular water until established. Older plants handle dry weather easily because of their strong, deep roots. Dry soil reduces the size of the edible tubers, so regular deep watering during late summer helps maximize your harvest.

Asparagus

Asparagus is quite drought-hardy. Once its deep root system grows into the ground, it can survive long dry times with very little water. The root crowns and tubers hold moisture to help the plant stay alive when it does not rain. Give new plants regular water during their first one to two years so they can grow strong roots. Water mature plants only when there is a long, hot dry spell.

Bush BeansGreen Beans

Green beans are not drought-hardy because of their shallow root systems which sit almost entirely in the top 15-30cm of soil and this top layer dries out first during a heatwave. Their broad, lush leaves also lose large amounts of water through transpiration. During long hot and dry spells, the leaves lose moisture even faster than the shallow roots can pull it from the ground.

For the observant gardener, a subtle change in plant colour indicates a need for irrigation. When moisture levels are adequate the bean plant is a bright, dark grass green. As plants experience water stress, leaves take on a slight greyish cast. Water is needed at this point to prevent blossom drop.

Dry conditions combined with high heat will cause bean plants to immediately drop their flowers. Without sufficient water, the pollen also dries out, meaning pods will not form, and if some pods do manage to grow they become stringy, woody and hollow rather than plump and succulent.

Hardy Bean Varieties:

While green beans generally have shallow roots and prefer regular watering to maintain succulent pods, specific cultivars manage dry spells far better than others:

‘Contender’ Bush Bean

Contender is the most drought-hardy choice among the standard green bush beans. It is highly rated by local seed suppliers as being moderately drought tolerant. It also handles heat waves exceptionally well without instantly dropping its blossoms. Because it matures incredibly fast (around 50 days), if you sow early, it often beats out prolonged mid-summer dry spells.

‘Malelane’ Bush Bean

Malelane is bred to withstand our harsh African growing conditions better than imported varieties, and offers strong vigour and high rust resistance. However, it still prefers regular moisture and moderate warmth rather than extreme drought or intense heat.

‘Favourite Pinto’ Bush Bean

Favourite Pinto is hardy and produces reliable high yields and a classic flavour profile. It is a dual-purpose variety that performs well in both green and dry stages. Favourite Pinto grows as a compact bush and is known for its strong tolerance to heat and moderate drought. These qualities make it well-suited to South African summer conditions.

Favourite Pinto Beans mature in around 60 days for green use and need up to 90 days for dry harvesting. The seeds are tan with characteristic dark brown speckles and are valued for their creamy, earthy flavour once cooked. Pods should be left to dry fully on the plant before shelling for storage.

'Rattlesnake' Climber Beans

Green beans generally require lots of water, but the rattlesnake heirloom bean has been grown for generations by the Cherokee people, and it is now part of the Cherokee Nation Seed Bank. It is both heat and drought tolerant and also does well in hot humid areas. For the best results, try to give the plants the occasional deep watering during the hottest summer months.

Rattlesnake beans are an heirloom variety of green bean, of the pole bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) which grows long vines that can easily reach over 3m tall.  The great tasting green pods are 15-20cm long and coloured with purple streaks. When you cook them they turn completely green.

If you pick the beans frequently the plant will produce the whole season long. Rattlesnake beans have a fine flavour and are string-less when picked young. The beans can be shelled when the pods are a bit more mature, and at the end of the season they can be harvested to dry. The light buff seeds are splashed with dark brown, resembling a rattlesnake’s coloration. Rattlesnake beans are also resistant to Bean Common Mosaic Virus R1.

‘Witsa’ Climber Beans

High-yielding, blight resistant and tolerant of low water conditions, this proudly South African variety was developed by the Horticultural Research Institute in the 1950’s, and years later it was almost lost when the only farmer producing Witsa passed away. Seed producers nationwide pulled together to save this bean and it now stands proudly as a South African staple.

‘Blue Peter’ Climber Beans

Blue Peter is a much loved heirloom runner bean which is considered a hardy, easy to-grow pole/runner bean variety for South African summer climates as it handles poor soil, and hot, dry conditions. The beans are a dark purple and when cooked turn a lovely deep green. Blue Peter is a good producer of beans over the season, and the more you pick the more it will produce.

Sweet Potato Sweet Potatoes

Sweet potatoes are the staple food for almost half the world’s population for many reasons. They are highly nutritious and one of nature’s super foods. They are cheap to produce, easy to grow, and drought resistant. Smallholder farmers rely on sweet potatoes because they survive dry seasons better than many other staple crops. For sweet potato, drought stress accounts for 25% total annual yield loss compared to more than 50% yield loss or complete failure in staple crops such as maize. Established plants that have already formed tubers tolerate dry conditions well. However, although prolonged dry spells where no irrigation is given will not always kill the plant, lack of water lowers the overall weight and size of the tubers.

Purchase virus-free sweet potato runners/cuttings water them consistently during the first few weeks. Once established, reduce watering to encourage strong root development. Avoid overwatering as harvest time nears.

Hardy Sweet Potato Varieties:

Some sweet potato varieties are more drought tolerant than others.

‘Ndou’

Ndou is a popular sweet potato with a brown skin and white flesh. It is a South African-bred variety developed for food security, high yields, and strong resistance to common field issues. It is known for producing large roots and handling tough, dry conditions with strong resilience.

Well known for its delicious creamy flesh that cooks to a soft, fluffy texture with a mild flavour that is slightly sweet, makes Ndou well-suited to both sweet and savoury preparations. This high yielding variety does not get too pithy even at a large size, and the tubers are known to get to over 3 kg’s each!

Ndou is known for its excellent resistance to sweet potato virus disease (SPVD) and other common root pathogens, making it ideal for small-scale and resource-limited growers.

'Bophelo'

Bophelo is a proudly South African sweet potato variety with light copper skin and creamy yellow flesh. Bred locally by the Agricultural Research Council to endure local climatic stress while offering high nutritional value, it offers excellent yields, flavour, and disease resistance. Less sugary than orange-fleshed varieties, Bophelo is also ideal for savoury dishes and is a good choice for diabetic-friendly meals.

Bophelo is noted for its resistance to sweet potato virus disease (SPVD) and shows strong field tolerance to pests and environmental stresses. This makes it an excellent option for sustainable, low-input growing. Its name means “life” in Sesotho, and true to its name, Bophelo has become a lifeline for many growers thanks to its dependable performance and nutritious roots.

 ‘IPC Yellow’

IPC Yellow, also known locally as Dagga sweet potato, is valued for its drought tolerance and consistent yields. Although not as flashy as modern commercial types, IPC Yellow remains a favourite in many rural and home gardens for its reliability and earthy, mildly sweet taste. It produces medium to large roots with golden-yellow flesh and a light brown to tan skin.

This variety is regarded as hardy and tolerant to variable conditions. While formal resistance data is limited, IPC Yellow is known for its resilience in low-input systems and has shown good field tolerance to local pests and diseases.

Pumpkin Flat WhitePumpkins & Squashes

Pumpkins, Squash, and Baby Marrow/Zuccini belong to the gourd family of plants. They are believed to have originated in Central America over 7,500 years ago, and the oldest domesticated pumpkin seeds were found in the Oaxaca Highlands of Mexico.

Because of their origin, they can take the heat, and if watered correctly can withstand dry summers. Under drought conditions they will require occasional deep watering. Squash develops deep, strong taproot systems that hunt for water far below the dry surface soil. Their large green leaves also help by shading the soil underneath, which stops water from evaporating too fast.

After sowing seed, do not overwater the beds until they germinate, and thereafter give young plants regular water so their roots grow nice and strong. Established plants need deep watering once or twice a week, depending on soil conditions and temperatures.

During very hot afternoons the leaves may droop to save energy, then bounce right back when it cools down. Therefore don’t just assume a pumpkin or squash plant needs water if it wilts, as they don’t like to be overwatered either.

Watering at soil level and ensuring that the leaves are totally dry before nightfall will help prevent fungal attacks like powdery mildew and rust.

What are winter and summer squashes?

Squashes are categorized as summer or winter based on when they are harvested and their rind texture, not by their scientific species. In fact, a single species can contain both summer and winter varieties.

Winter squash like butternut and pumpkins have hard, tough skins that cannot be easily pierced when mature. They have a long growing season and are harvested in late summer and autumn. Winter squashes have less water than summer squash and a richer, nuttier taste. A drier flesh combined with their thick skin allows us to store them for many months for winter use.

Summer Squashes like Baby Marrows/Zuccini and Patty Pans have thin, soft skins you can pierce with a fingernail. Therefore they have a short shelf life and are eaten in summer. Patty pans are not very tolerant of drought and require regular watering to flower and fruit well. During very hot and dry seasons they need regular deep watering. Mulching the soil will help to conserve water.

'Queensland Blue' 

This favourite Australian heirloom is a world standard grey pumpkin that has stood the test of time. It is well-suited to dryland and warmer conditions, and is well adapted to South African growing conditions.

It’s a rather strange looking top heavy pumpkin that grows on strong productive vines. The medium to large fruit weighs 3-4kg and has a smooth, very hard and strongly ribbed dark grey skin, and sweet, rich, deep orange flesh, and can be stored for up to 6 months.

‘Flat White Boer’ 

 Flat White Boer is a typical flat, ribbed, white skinned, South African heirloom pumpkin that adapts well to drier cultivation methods. It is open pollinated and remains a favourite for its sweet yellow flesh and large size, 4-6kg or more. It is a very vigorous plant suitable for the field and home gardens.

'Musquée de Provence'

This pumpkin originates from the south of France and is also known as the Fairytale Pumpkin. These pumpkins look like big cheese wheels, squat and deeply ribbed. The immature fruits are green, maturing to a rich mahogany-orange when ripe.

‘Yellow Scallop’

The yellow scallop is an heirloom variety of patty pan that is commonly eaten very young, but if you grow them larger, to at least 15cm in diameter they are really flavoursome.

‘Juane et Verte’

This is a stunning French heirloom patty pan squash known for its scalloped shape and creamy-yellow skin with deep green stripes. It tastes mild and sweet, much like zucchini. It is tasty when picked young and the flavour only improves as it gets older.

‘Bennings Green’

A classic pale green to white heirloom patty pan variety known for its tender texture and slightly sweet and mild, buttery flavour when harvested young.

Baby Marrow/Zucchini

Baby Marrow is not very tolerant of drought and requires regular watering to flower and fruit well. During very hot and dry seasons they need regular deep watering. Mulching the soil will help to conserve water. Varieties of Baby Marrow like Caserta and Golden Zucchini are noted for being reasonably drought tolerant once the plants are established.

‘Caserta’

Caserta is a sturdy baby marrow type that handles warm, productive growing cycles well. It is a classic and beloved Italian heirloom variety that stands out because of its light green speckled skin. It is very prolific, with a rich, nutty flavour and a smooth, firm texture.

‘Golden Zucchini’

The golden zucchini features bright yellow skin, and tough resilient growing habits similar to the standard green zucchini. These small compact bushes will continue producing for months if picked often enough. For fun and a real flavour sensation, allow some fruits to get 'submarine sized'.

Gem Squash:

Gem squash has a tap root that can descend to 60cm, but most of the roots are in the top 20-30cm topsoil zone and it is these shallow roots that do most of the work in providing water and nutrients to the plant and ultimately the fruit. Therefore, although gem squash can be produced under dryland conditions, it will produce much better when irrigated.

Water requirements will vary with soil type, season and growth stage. Avoid over irrigation and waterlogging. Although gem squash prefers sandy loam to loamy soil, gardeners can conserve water during hot and very dry seasons by mulching the soil.

Rolet 'Little Gem'

Little gem is a favourite South African heirloom that produces small, round, dark green fruits with a mild, delicate flavour and creamy texture. This compact, early-maturing squash typically grows 60–90cm in height, and needs 1m to spread. It is a highly productive variety that is perfect for small spaces and containers, where it will grow beautifully on a trellis or fence.

Rhubarb

Rhubarb is moderately drought-tolerant once the plant is established, and will survive brief dry spells due to its deep, water-storing roots. However, it thrives best with consistent moisture and suffers reduced yields or stress under severe or prolonged droughts. Young plants require regular watering during their first one to two years to build strong roots. Mature plants need deep watering every 7 to 10 days during hot, dry summer stretches. Do not overwater, as soggy soil rots the plants crown.

Vegetable crops that suffer with insufficient water

Endive

Endive is somewhat more resilient and more heat-tolerant than regular lettuce, it is not truly drought-hardy and prefers cooler weather. While mature chicory-family plants with deep roots handle dry spells better than soft salad greens, lack of water quickly ruins the harvest. Endive requires steady, even moisture to grow properly, and dry soil causes it to bolt (go to seed early) and also makes the leaves very bitter.

Maize

Maize and sweet corn have very shallow roots and need regular watering. Demand is most critical during tasselling, silking, and ear development. Yield is directly related to quantities of water, nitrogen and spacing. Water stress delays the silking period, but not tasselling. Under mild water stress the crop may tassel and shed pollen before silks are ready for pollination. The lack of pollination may reduce yields or even eliminate ear production.

If you want to grow maize at home plant varieties that are developed for semi-arid growing conditions.

‘Stowell’s Evergreen’

Stowell’s Evergreen is a leading white sweet corn for the home and market gardeners. This classic heirloom is drought-tolerant and known for its long harvest window, deep sweet kernels, and exceptional storage quality.

'Kalahari Early Pearl'

Kalahari Early Pearl is fast maturing white maize developed for South Africa’s semi-arid growing conditions. This open-pollinated variety is named for its ability to thrive in the hot, dry Kalahari region and is widely grown for fresh green mealies. With strong germination and broad adaptability, it has become a staple crop in smallholder and home gardens alike. Plants produce cobs of about 18cm with large, white kernels and good field-holding ability.

'Sahara Corn'

Sahara Corn is hardy yellow dent maize developed for Southern African conditions, offering dependable yields and strong disease resistance. This open-pollinated variety produces robust plants reaching up to 2.6m in height with distinctive hanging leaves and long, well-filled cobs measuring up to 35cm and carrying plump yellow kernels. Sahara has become a trusted staple for commercial and home growers alike.

Brassicaceae Crops

Members of the family Brassicaceae include: Broccoli, Brussels Sprouts, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Kohlrabi, Collards, Kale, Arugula (Rocket), Bok Choy, Mizuna, Watercress, Turnips, and Radishes. 

These vegetables grow best as intermediate or cool season crops, and although hybrids allow us to grow them in the warmer months, these varieties will need regular watering no matter what season they are grown in.

The quality of these crops is significantly reduced if the plants get dry anytime during the growing season. Water use is highest and most critical during head development. Therefore, it is not advised to grow Members of the Brassicaceae family during periods of drought unless their watering requirements can be met.

Shelling Peas and Snap Peas

Peas are not drought hardy. They are intermediate to cool-season crops with shallow roots that need steady moisture to grow well and set pods.

Table Celery

Celery is not drought hardy; it is one of the thirstiest garden crops because it naturally evolved in marshy, boggy environments. Most roots sit in the top 45cm of soil, meaning they dry out very fast. The soil must stay evenly moist at all times. Lack of water makes the stems stringy, fibrous, and tough. Dry soil can cause the inside of the stalks to become hollow. Water stress creates a bitter, sharp taste instead of crisp, fresh flavour.

Fennel

In cooler regions fennel can be sown from spring to autumn, but in hotter regions, soaring temperatures tend to induce bolting. Therefor fennel is generally grown as an intermediate to cool season crop. Common sweet fennel plants are drought hardy once they are fully established, thanks to a deep taproot. However, bulb (Florence) fennel needs steady moisture and is less tolerant of dry spells. Water young fennel plants regularly for the first few months so they can build a strong root system.

Root Crops

Root crops require a constant supply of moisture and are intolerant of dry soils. Small, cracked, knobby, woody, misshapen, and a hot flavoured root crops are symptoms of water stress. They can survive short dry periods, but severe lack of water ruins the crop quality.

Parsnips

Mature parsnips are fairly drought tolerant once their deep taproots are well established. Young plants require consistent, moist soil and will fail or dry out completely if left in parched earth. Established plants send roots a meter or more deep into the ground, making them surprisingly resilient against dry spells. Extreme drought and prolonged lack of water stops growth and can cause the large roots to split or become woody when re-wetted.

Radishes

Radishes need steady moisture to grow right. Dry soil makes the roots hard and woody and turns the taste very sharp, hot, or bitter. Stressed plants may stop growing roots or split open when watered late. Dry and hot weather causes the plant to bolt (go to seed) prematurely.

Carrots

Carrots are relatively drought-tolerant once established, using deep taproots to find moisture, but they need consistent water during early growth and root development for good yield and quality. Severe dry stress followed by sudden watering can cause mature roots to split or crack. Lack of water during active root growth reduces overall size and crop yield, and severe moisture deficits lead to woody, misshapen, or poorly coloured carrots.

Onions

All members of the onion family: Onions, Spring Onions, Leeks, Garlic, and Chives have an inefficient rooting system making irrigation management a key factor in produce quality. They require a constant supply of moisture and are intolerant of dry soils.

Garlic

Standard culinary garlic (Allium sativum) is not truly drought hardy. While established plants can survive brief dry periods, lack of water severely stunts bulb growth, causes premature early flowering (bolting), and results in small, split, or misshapen cloves. Garlic has a weak, shallow root system that dries out quickly. Plants need regular moisture while leaves and bulbs are forming. Dry soil during spring development dramatically cuts total yield and bulb size. You should stop watering completely 2 to 3 weeks before harvesting. Letting the soil dry out at the very end helps the outer wrappers turn papery and dry, preparing the bulbs for storage

Beetroot

Beetroot is relatively drought-tolerant once it is established, as its deep taproots and waxy leaves help it survive dry spells better than many other root vegetables. However, beetroot still needs steady moisture and severe or long dry periods will harm the crop.

Turnips

Turnips are moderately drought-tolerant once established, but they need regular watering to grow well. Without enough water, turnip roots turn woody, small, and bitter. They can survive short dry periods, but severe lack of water ruins the crop quality.

Celeriac

Celeriac is not drought hardy. It requires consistently moist, nutrient-rich soil and has shallow roots that dry out easily. High heat and dry spells require frequent watering, sometimes every day or two. Lack of water makes the swollen root tough and stringy and the flavour becomes harsh and unpleasant instead of mild and nutty. Dry stress stops the root from swelling properly, ruining the harvest size. Therefore, the soil must never be allowed dry out completely during its long growing season.

Potatoes

Potatoes are not drought hardy and are very sensitive to water shortages as most potato roots stay in the top 30-60cm of soil, missing deeper water, and drying out quickly in hot weather. Dry spells during tuber setup or growth result in huge drops in crop yield, and result in deformed potatoes. Some specific regional types (like BP1) handle dry conditions slightly better than others, but they still need regular moisture to produce a good harvest