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Condensed Version: Aloe ferox Picture courtesy Random Harvest Nursery

In its wild habitat, or in frost-free gardens, the bitter aloe can, with maturity, attain a great size; and has been granted tree status in South Africa.

It produces a tall, single, upright, unbranched woody stem; varying in height from 1.8 to 5m in mature specimens. The woody stem is crowned with long, thick and fleshy, green to greyish-green leaves arranged in a rosette. The leaf surfaces of young plants are covered in spines, but as the plant grows taller the leaves begin to lose most of their spines, except for those along the leaf margins. Old, dried leaves invariably persist on the stem, clothing it with a dense brown “petticoat” which rattles in the wind.

The flowers are carried in a large candelabra-like flower-head, branched into 5 to 12 erect racemes, each carrying hundreds of tubular flowers which stand 60cm to 1.2m above the leaves. The individual flowers are about 2.5cm long and densely packed in thick brush-like clusters on the stalks; varying in colour from yellowy-orange to bright red; but many variables occur in nature, including multi-coloured and yellow and white forms. Flowering occurs between May and August, but in colder regions of the country this may be delayed until September.

The bitter aloe is adaptable to many conditions and makes a wonderful architectural and specimen plant for the garden. Site your aloes in a water-wise section of your garden together with other drought hardy plants - where they are not irrigated with the rest of your garden.The bitter aloe also grows easily in containers, making it more suitable for small gardens. Also in cold climates, the pots can be moved in winter.

Aloe ferox prefers dry-tropical climates, growing in very well drained, infertile soil, on open windy sites. In regions with moderate to light frost it can be planted,as long as the young plants are protected in winter when young, until they are reasonably well established, or they can be planted into pots.

In the garden it will will adapt to most garden soils which drain well, but ensure that the plant receives full sun and some wind. Adding some compost or other organic material to very impoverished soils will not damage the plants, but rather get them off to a good start in the garden.  Where the soil is clayish and water retaining, you can plant aloes in raised beds, adding plenty of washed river sand or a similar material which will encourage drainage. Although the bitter aloe has a high drought tolerance, to keep your plants looking at their best during very long, dry spells, water moderately by hand if necessary , but let the soil dry out totally between watering’s.

Aloes are not heavy feeders and should not be over-fertilised. They respond well to an annual feeding in autumn, consisting of a mulch of well matured kraal manure or compost, together with a generous dressing of bone meal  - watered in well.

The bitter aloe is excellent in potted culture as long as the potting medium has perfect drainage. Potted plants will adapt themselves to the size of pot used, much like a bonsai, but larger pots suit this tree aloe better.  

Full Version:

Description, History & Interesting Facts:

The genus Aloe belongs to the lily family and is a very diverse group with more than 500 species of  mostly spiny, flowering succulent plants. The genus is native to tropical and southern Africa, Madagascar, Jordan, the Arabian Peninsula, and various islands in the Indian Ocean like Mauritius, Réunion and the Comoros.  A few species have become naturalized in other regions of the world like the Mediterranean, India, Australia, North and South America. Some aloes are treelike, others look a lot like cacti, but all species have leaves arranged in rosettes, with or without a stem.

Because they grow well in warmer areas of the world, some of the best aloe gardens are to be found in places like California, Portugal and other Mediterranean parts of Europe.

Aloe ferox is indigenous to the Western Cape, Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal. It is also found in the south eastern corner of the Free State and southern Lesotho. Its large natural range of over 1000 kilometres forms a near-continuous band across the southern Cape, from near Swellendam northwards along the eastern coast of South Africa through the Eastern Cape to the southern parts of KwaZulu-Natal. It occurs in a broad range of habitats, both in the open and in bushy areas; like semi-arid plains, scrub, rocky mountain slopes, grassy fynbos, as well as on the edges of the Karoo. It commonly colonises rocky slopes in great numbers, where it creates a stunning display in winter when in full bloom.

Because its distribution range covers such a wide variety of habitats, Aloe ferox has become a variable species, resulting in marked physical differences, as well as variations in the flowering time of this species. For example, an attractive form of Aloe ferox is found in Kwazulu-Natal, particularly between the midlands and the coast in the Umkomaas and Umlaas river catchment areas. This aloe used to be known as A. candelabrum abut has subsequently been included in the species.

In its wild habitat, or in frost-free gardens, the bitter aloe can, with maturity, attain a great size; and has been granted tree status in South Africa. It produces a tall, single, upright, unbranched woody stem; varying in height from 1.8 to 5m in mature specimens. The woody stem is crowned with long, thick and fleshy, green to greyish-green leaves arranged in a rosette. During the dry season and under drought conditions the leaves will take on a reddish tint. The leaf surfaces of young plants are covered in spines, but as the plant grows taller and less vulnerable to grazing, the leaves begin to lose most of their spines, except for those along the leaf margins. Old, dried leaves invariably persist on the stem, clothing it with a dense brown “petticoat” which rattles in the wind.

The flowers are carried in a large candelabra-like flower-head, branched into 5 to 12 erect racemes, each carrying hundreds of tubular flowers which stand 60cm to 1.2m above the leaves. The individual flowers are about 2.5cm long and densely packed in thick brush-like clusters on the stalks; varying in colour from yellowy-orange to bright red; but many variables occur in nature, including multi-coloured and yellow and white forms. Flowering occurs between May and August, but in colder regions of the country this may be delayed until September.

A health icon pixabayHealth Benefits:

Based on their medicinal properties and use in consumer products, Aloe Vera and Aloe ferox are considered to be the two most commercially important aloe species. The leaf gel of the bitter aloe does not taste bitter and has wonderful wound healing properties.  It is very similar to that of aloe Vera and is used in the same way in herbal remedies, food supplements and cosmetic products. It has a cooling and healing influence because it contains glycoproteins that have a cell-proliferating, hydrating and protective effect on the skin when applied externally. Aloe gel is most powerful when squeezed directly from the leaf, as it quickly loses its potency through oxidation in storage.  The gel may also be taken internally and has a soothing effect on the intestines.

Aloe ferox is most famous for its medicinal qualities and one of several Aloe species used to make bitter aloes, and used as a purgative medication. The bitter yellow juice found just below the skin is extracted by boiling or tapping, and has been harvested as a renewable resource for two hundred years. The hard, black, resinous product is known as Cape aloes or aloe bitters, is used mainly for its laxative properties but is also taken for arthritis."Schwedenbitters" or Swedish bitters contains bitter aloe and is a traditional herbal tonic found in many pharmacies.

In the Garden:

Aloes are excellent garden subjects and deserve a place in more South African gardens. Not only are the plants very attractive on their own, but the annual flowering season in winter brings bright and wonderful colour into the garden at a time when colour is usually lacking. Site your aloes in a water-wise section of your garden together with other drought hardy plants; and where they are not irrigated with the rest of your garden.

Owing to their moisture-retaining leaves that contain no flammable resins or oils, aloes can be utilised as gorgeous living firebreaks around the perimeter of your property, and in island beds for added fire resistance.

The bitter aloe is adaptable to many conditions and makes a wonderful architectural and specimen plant for  the garden. It can survive long periods of drought, making it great for water-wise gardens. It combines well with other indigenous plants and succulents, but allow it space to develop. The bitter aloe also grows easily in containers, so even a small garden could house one, and in cold climates, the pots can be moved in winter.

In addition the flowers attract a variety of birds like sunbirds and orioles, as well as weavers, glossy starlings and mouse-birds. Insects also visit the flowers, which in turn will attract insect eating birds to your garden. In the wild, monkeys and baboons raid the flowers for their nectar.

Cultivation/Propagation:

Aloe ferox prefers dry-tropical climates and open windy areas, where it loves basking in the sun.  All aloes do best in a very well drained, infertile soil, but will adapt to most garden soils which drain well. Adding some compost or other organic material to very impoverished soils will not damage the plants, but rather get them off to a good start in the garden.  Where the soil is clayish and water retaining, you can plant aloes in raised beds, adding plenty of washed river sand, or a similar material which will encourage drainage into the planting mix. Although the bitter aloe has a high drought tolerance, to keep your plants looking at their best during very long, dry spells, water moderately by hand if necessary , but let the soil dry out totally between watering’s.

Aloe ferox is semi-hardy to frost but young plants will need protection in winter until they are reasonably well established, or they can be planted into pots. The bitter aloe is excellent in potted culture as long as the potting medium has perfect drainage. Potted plants will adapt themselves to the size of pot used, much like a bonsai, but larger pots suit this tree aloe better.  In cold climates the pots can be moved to a warm, sheltered position during the winter months; and in small gardens potted tree aloes would be the answer.

Aloes are not heavy feeders and should not be over-fertilised. They respond well to an annual feeding in autumn, consisting of a mulch of well matured kraal manure or compost, together with a generous dressing of bone meal  - watered in well.

When transplanting aloes, remove all dried roots, new roots will be formed after a few weeks.

Propagation:

The bitter aloe can be propagated from seed or stem cuttings.

If sown from seed, be aware that aloes will hybridise with any other aloes which flower at the same time, and the progeny from seed will not always be the same as the parent plant. Seeds must be sown in a well-drained medium in shallow trays and covered lightly with sand. Keep the trays and young seedlings in a warm but shaded place and water very moderately. If grown under the right conditions, fresh seeds give have a high germination rate. Germination occurs in about 3 weeks, and at this point, keep them warm and water a bit more sparingly, allowing the surface soil to dry out between watering’s, or the seedlings could rot.

Transplant into small pots or bags when the seedlings are about 4cm high; this could take up to 6 months. Water very lightly after transplanting and then leave the plants for a week or two without watering at all, as this will encourage them to put down deep roots. As your plants grow water them moderately, and gradually acclimatise them to full sun before planting them out into the garden. Plants grown from seed can take 4 to 5 years to flower.

Pests & Diseases:

Inspect your aloes regularly for Snout Beetles, because they are the no one enemy of all aloes; and quick and decisive action is required whenever they are noticed. Because snout beetles are nocturnal, you will not notice them unless you go out at night with a torch; so the earliest sign of snout beetle damage, even before the eggs have been laid, are unsightly dark depressions on the leaves with a puncture mark in the middle, where the adult beetles have been grazing.

Other pests to watch out for are ants, white scale on the leaves, and aphids. Fungal diseases like rust will show as fairly large yellow spots on the leaves.

Click here to read a more in-depth article on the problems, pests and diseases which affect Aloes.

Pets:

Aloe ferox and Aloe vera are safe to use on pets, both topically and internally. Consult with your veterinarian about application and dosage.

Warning:

Due to the abortifacient, irritant and cathartic effects associated with excessive use of Aloe ferox, it should be avoided during pregnancy and while breastfeeding. The laxative effect from the bitter leaf exudate may stimulate uterine contractions and should also not be taken by young children.

The information contained within this website is for educational purposes only, recording the traditional uses of specific plants as recorded through history. Always seek advice from a medical practitioner before starting a home treatment programme.

See under medium-sized plants

Mulch gardenThere are many important reasons to mulch; but probably the most important reasons are to prevent soil erosion and for water conservation. This is especially important in our hot climate because mulching can reduce watering by about 60%. Mulches can either be organic or inorganic, but organic mulches have the added advantage of slowly breaking down and adding nutrients to the soil. This improves soil structure and drainage, and encourages earthworm and soil microbial activity. Mulching will also give your garden a neat, tidy appearance.

Weeds compete with plants for both water and nutrients and a thin layer of mulch will help suppress the germination and growth of weeds, and therefore reduce the amount of time you need to spend on weeding. Mulching also keeps the soil temperature more constant during hot summer days and cold winter nights.

If laid correctly there is generally no problem with mulches, however, improper mulching materials and practices may have a negative impact on plants in your garden. For example, if organic mulch is too thick and is piled up against the stems of your trees or specimen shrubs, it can cause the stems to soften, making them vulnerable to rot and other diseases.  Therefore, mulches should be no thicker than 75mm, any deeper can cause problems. Also, only replace organic mulch when it has almost completely rotted away, because mulch which is too thick can produce a hard layer which is difficult for water to penetrate. Another reason to keep your mulch thin is that slugs, earwigs, cutworms, and other insects love cool, moist, dark places to hide away.

Mulch black slate pebblesIt is also vital to remember that before putting down wood based organic mulches, you need to cover your soil with a thick layer of compost or manure before laying the mulch; and if you are renewing your mulch, you first need to remove any old mulch which has not decomposed, before adding the fresh compost. Adding a layer of soil before mulching with bark chips will ensure that what is called a “nitrogen drawdown” does not occur.  Nitrogen drawdown occurs when micro-organisms like fungi and bacteria start breaking down the mulch; and because nitrogen is the major nutrient they need to do this, and they need to draw it out of the soil; this results in a competition for nutrients between plant roots and the mulch that’s sitting on top. To combat this, you need the "manure or compost sandwich" between the soil and the mulch. The manure will provide nutrients for the plants directly, while providing a buffer for your plant roots. For this reason it is always best to use medium to coarse grade bark mulches. Coarser mulches also don't absorb much moisture, while still allowing water to penetrate to the soil easily. The disadvantage of using finer based mulch is that it absorbs moisture and can form a seed bed for weeds.

Also worth considering is the colour of your mulch. Dark coloured mulches will absorb and retain more heat from the sun than light coloured ones. This is an advantage in cooler regions but a disadvantage in hotter climates. Light coloured mulches, and especially white stones, will reflect light and heat and in very hot climates can dangerously overheat surrounding plants.

Old newspapers can also be recycled and used as mulch by laying the sheets thickly over the soil, before weighing it down with compost or manure. Newspaper is great for suppressing weed growth and decomposes quickly, adding valuable structure to the soil, and earthworms also love it!

Mulch pathwayBecause mulch, whether it’s degradable or not, will be down for a long time, it is really worthwhile to prepare the ground thoroughly before laying down any type of mulch. Ensure that the area is completely weed and debris free, and for non-biodegradable mulches lay down several layers of woven landscape fabric on the surface of the soil before applying your decorative mulch. This material is permeable, allowing water and nutrients to reach the soil; but remember that over time, soil may build up on top of the fabric and any weed seeds which fall on top may germinate and will need to be weeded out. Nevertheless, these weed fabrics certainly help a lot to suppress weeds.  

Some types of mulch just won't stay put; gravel and stones creep onto lawns; light husks like Cocoa hulls can easily blow away; and small bark chips can wash away in heavy rain. It will be necessary to edge some beds and pathways to prevent this.  Generally mulches with heavy or large pieces are more likely to stay put.

Apart from a few plants that don't like mulch, such as the bearded iris, whose rhizomes actually need to bake in the sun, mulching will encourage the garden to thrive and help to conserve precious water.

Biodegradable mulches break down gradually to release nutrients into the soil and help improve its structure. Layers will only need only replacing when the material has fully rotted down. Among the best materials are; leaf mould, compost, well-rotted manure, bark chips, nut husks, and even pine or other cones.  If you live in a rural area you may be lucky enough to be able to procure straw based mulches, or spent hops (poisonous if eaten by dogs), lucerne, cane type mulches, or even seaweed and sea shells. Plant based mulches like straw are most economical and are usually available by the bale, or chopped and bagged for ease of handling and a neater look in the garden. Cube type mulches like palm peat are also great to use in small areas and for potted plants. When water is applied to them, they swell out considerably and are light and long lasting. Palm peat is also a good soil conditioner and can be worked Mulch seashellsthrough the soil.

Bark and nut-shell based mulches are great organic choices and freely available from garden centres and some hardware stores. Macadamia, pecan nut, and peanut shells look stunning in the garden. Milled bark is also most attractive, and available in various grades, from fine through medium, and coarse.  An advantage of bark and nut shell based mulches is they take longer to break down, so you don't have to apply them as often.

Non-biodegradable mulches don’t break down to boost the fertility or structure of the soil; but they will suppress weeds, conserve moisture; and are almost maintenance free. Beautiful finishes and textures can also be achieved, depending on the medium used. These types of mulches are perfect to use in areas like pathways, near patios, water features, swimming pools and entranceways, where their beauty can be admired.

There are so many decorative aggregates to choose from; like tumbled glass in an array of wonderful colours, river pebbles in all sizes and shades, slate, shingle; and even gravel. These materials can also be used in containers; and if you love to re-cycle, even crushed CDs can be used on the surface of containers.

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If using non-biodegradable mulches in the garden, bear in mind that they are not easy to clean and cannot be raked, so try not to use them underneath trees which drop their leaves or near other shrubs which are messy, dropping their flower or fruits. The answer for such areas would be to invest in a garden blower to do the job.

In conclusion, if done correctly, mulching your garden will not only beautify it, but also greatly improve your soil, reduce soil erosion and the need to weed; and save you a fortune on water bills. Mulching can be done at any time, but is usually done in spring or autumn, so if you have not done so yet, get mulching!

Caraway seedCondensed Version:

This herbaceous biennial (a plant that takes two years to grow from seed to fruition, before dying) has finely divided, feathery leaves, growing on 20 to 30cm stems. The main flower stem is about 40 to 60cm tall, with umbels of small creamy-white flowers, often flushed with pink. The edible roots are thick and tapering, like a parsnip, though much smaller. The fruits (seeds) are crescent-shaped and about 2mm long; and today the seed is grown mainly to flavour foods and confectionery. 

Because the plant is highly attractive to pollinators, it makes a very useful companion plant in the vegetable garden. Caraway will attract parasitic wasps and flies and will help protect other plants from agricultural pests. Caraway also has long roots that can help break down and condition heavy soils, making it a good companion for any shallow rooted plants. Planting caraway with strawberries will enhance your strawberry crop, and it also benefits peas and beans. Planting caraway with fennel or dill is a bad idea and should be avoided if possible.

Caraway often does best when the seeds are sown in autumn, but can also be sown in spring and summer. If sown in autumn, the plants will produce seeds the following summer. Generally, in warmer regions caraway is planted in the winter; and in colder climates it is planted as a summer annual or biennial. This plant is hardy to frost, but prefers a warm, sunny location. It thrives on light, sandy but fertile soils which drain well, but adapts to most garden soils. Sow the seed in drills 30cm apart, and when the plants are strong enough, thin them out to about 20cm. Water moderately during dry spells and ensure that you remove weeds regularly. The seeds are harvested when fully ripe and can be dried either on trays in the sun, or by very gentle heat in an oven.

Full Version:

Description, History & Interesting Facts:

The origins of caraway are not clear, because it grows wild throughout Central Europe, Siberia, Turkey in Asia, Persia, India, and North Africa, particularly Egypt. Caraway belongs to the Apiaceae (parsley family); consisting of mostly aromatic plants with hollow stems, like: celery, carrot, parsley, angelica, anise, chervil, coriander (cilantro), cumin, dill, fennel, lovage, parsnip, and the beautiful garden flower called Queen Anne's lace.

It is believed that the ancient Arabs were the first to use caraway seeds, which they still call “Karawya.” Caraway is frequently mentioned by the old writers like Dioscorides; a Greek physician, pharmacologist and botanist, who was employed as a medic in the Roman army, and advised that the oil to be taken by pale-faced girls.

In the Middle Ages and in Shakespeare's times caraway was also very popular. The custom of serving roast apples with a little saucer of Caraway is still kept at Trinity College, Cambridge, and at some of the old-fashioned London Livery Dinners, just as in Shakespeare's days. The scattering of the seed over cakes has long been practised, and Caraway-seed cake was formerly a standing institution at the feasts given by farmers to their labourers at the end of the wheat-sowing season. The little Caraway comfits consist of the seeds encrusted with white sugar.

In Germany, the peasants flavoured their cheese, cabbage, soups, and household bread with caraway; and in Norway and Sweden black, polenta-like caraway bread is eaten in country districts.

This herbaceous biennial (a plant that takes two years to grow from seed to fruition, before dying) is similar in appearance to other members of the carrot family, with finely divided, feathery leaves, growing on 20 to 30cm stems. The main flower stem is about 40 to 60cm tall, with umbels of small creamy-white flowers, often flushed with pink. The edible roots are thick and tapering, like a parsnip, though much smaller. The fruits (seeds) are crescent-shaped and about 2mm long. Today the seed is grown mainly to flavour foods and confectionery,

Uses:

An oil extracted from them is used as an ingredient of alcoholic liquors; and both the Germans and the Russians make a liqueur called “Kummel” from caraway. Caraway seed oil is also used as a fragrance component in soaps, lotions, and perfumes. The exhausted seed, after the distillation of the oil, contains a high percentage of protein and fat, and is used as a cattle food. It is an undoubted fact that tame pigeons are particularly fond of the seeds, and will never stray if they are given a piece of baked Caraway dough in their cote.

Health Benefits:

Caraway seed has a long tradition of use in folk medicine and distilled caraway water is still considered a useful remedy in the flatulent colic of infants, and is an excellent vehicle for children's medicine, because, when sweetened, its flavour is agreeable. In addition, caraway seeds have their own food value and several health benefits. Caraway is a rich source of dietary fibre; and active principles in the seeds are known to have antioxidant, digestive, carminative, and anti-flatulent properties. The seeds are the storehouse for many vital vitamins like; vitamin A, vitamin E, vitamin C as well as many B-complex vitamins, like thiamin, pyridoxine, riboflavin, and niacin. Caraway is also an excellent source of minerals like iron, copper, calcium, potassium, manganese, selenium, zinc and magnesium.

Pets:

Caraway is not known to be toxic to pets.

In the Kitchen:

The seed is usually used whole and has a pungent, liquorice-anise like flavour and aroma. In traditional European cuisine, caraway seed is one of the dominant spices which feature in many savoury dishes, as well as in sweet dishes. They are used as a spice in cakes and breads, especially rye and pumpernickel breads. They add flavour to cheese; and are also used for seasoning sausages and beef. The seed is delicious cooked with vegetables like potatoes, and cabbage, especially sauerkraut.  The roots can be cooked as a root vegetable in the same way as parsnips or carrots; and the young leaves can be added to salads.

Caraway is also used in Indian cuisine, in dishes such as pulao (a dish consisting of rice flavoured with spices and cooked in stock, to which meat, poultry, or fish may be added )and biryani (a mixed rice dish from the Indian Subcontinent made with spices, rice and meat or vegetables.) In Middle Eastern cuisine, caraway pudding is a popular dessert during Ramadan. Caraway is also added to flavour Harissa (a spicy North African sauce made from chili peppers, garlic, cumin, and other seasonings).

In the Garden:

The delicate, feathery leaves of caraway blend well with other flowering plants in the flower border, and are especially pretty in cottage, meadow and wild gardens.

Companion Planting:

Because the plant is highly attractive to pollinators, it makes a very useful companion plant in the vegetable garden. Caraway will attract parasitic wasps and flies and will help protect other plants from agricultural pests.

Caraway also has long roots that can help break down and condition heavy soils, making it a good companion for any shallow rooted plants.

Planting caraway with strawberries will enhance your strawberry crop, and it also benefits peas and beans. Planting caraway with fennel or dill is a bad idea and should be avoided if possible.

Caraway plant. Picture courtesy www.ballstraathof.co.zaCultivation & Harvesting:

Caraway often does best when the seeds are sown in autumn, but can also be sown in spring and summer. If sown in autumn, the plants will produce seeds the following summer. Generally, in warmer regions caraway is planted in the winter; and in colder climates it is planted as a summer annual or biennial.

This plant is hardy to frost, but prefers a warm, sunny location. It thrives on light, sandy but fertile soils which drain well, but adapts to most garden soils. Sow the seed in drills 30cm apart, and when the plants are strong enough, thin them out to about 20cm. Water moderately during dry spells and ensure that you remove weeds regularly.

The seeds are harvested when fully ripe and can be dried either on trays in the sun, or by very gentle heat in an oven.

Problems, Pests & Diseases:

Caraway is not bothered by many pests or diseases id it is grown correctly, but is occasionally attacked by carrot root fly, otherwise known as carrot rust fly and aphids.

Caution:

There is no scientific evidence on the side-effects of caraway seeds, and they are generally known to have positive effects on health. However, high doses of caraway seeds may lead to kidney and liver afflictions, attributed to the content of volatile oils.

The information contained within this website is for educational purposes only, recording the traditional uses of specific plants as recorded through history.

Always seek advice from a medical practitioner before starting a home treatment programme.

Dianthus Bouquet Purple. Picture courtesy Ball Horticultural CompanyDoes your summer flower garden start to fizzle out as soon as the cooler weather arrives? If so, you need a new plan to keep your beds blooming, and one which doesn’t cost a fortune either! It’s very hard not to get carried away at the garden centre when confronted with all those trays of delightful flowering seedlings, but please take a deep breath and stick to your original plan. Also, remember that no prize-winning flower garden can be created in the first year and a bit of planning beforehand will save you a lot of time and money in the long run.

To ensure that you always have some colour in your garden, introduce a couple of new flowering perennials to your garden each season, and you will soon build up a framework of permanent flowering plants. These perennials, together with your selected shrubs and trees, will form the framework around which you can create an attractive and continuous display of colour in your garden. Perennials will also reduce the amount of annuals you need to plant each season, not only saving you a lot of cash but a lot of time also. Autumn is an exciting time in the garden and there are many beautiful perennials in bloom now; so ‘get out there’ and visit your favourite garden centre for some autumn inspiration and great advice.

The addition of flowering annuals should complete your garden for all seasons, with all the various plants supporting each other visually to weave a rich patchwork of texture and colour. Colour is what most people are drawn to in a garden and should be tactfully incorporated into your design for maximum impact. You can create a mood or even change the perspective of a garden by using certain colours.

Think about how you want to use colour, not only for the way you think it will look but also for the mood you want to create in the garden. For glorious, instant gratification - nothing beats bedding plants - and just a few trays of seedlings will transform your garden into a kaleidoscope of brilliant colour.

Many bedding plants grow beautifully in containers, and a few strategically placed groupings of flowering pots and hanging baskets will instantly add a warm and welcoming touch to entrances, patios and other areas. Colour will also enhance the visibility of your business, and bold floral plantings can be changed seasonally to continually attract attention.

In cold winter regions which experience early frosts, gardeners generally start planting out trays of winter seedlings, or sowing seeds, once the soil temperatures have cooled down significantly in autumn. In subtropical and humid regions, late summer, autumn and winter are the best times to plant a flower garden; and many winter annuals, as well as summer flowering annuals are sown during these cooler months. Sowing and planting times vary from region to region, and not all so-called “winter annuals” are fully hardy to frost, so it is always best to check with your local garden centre to ensure that you plant the correct varieties at the right time.

Remember to water the beds and the trays of seedlings thoroughly the day before planting out, and always plant in the cool of the morning or late afternoon. To avoid damaging the seedlings, gently coax them out of their trays by pushing them out from below. A common mistake gardeners make is to plant their seedlings too deep - never bury the stems or cover their crowns with soil, as this can cause them to rot. Water well after transplanting and keep the soil moist but not soggy until they are established. If you are planting a mixture of seedlings, remember to group plants which have the same watering requirements together.

Most bedding plants need well drained soil to thrive and thorough soil preparation is vital. Start by digging the bed over thoroughly and adding generous quantities of compost or other organic matter and a handful of bone meal to each square meter of bed. For pots, use a very well drained potting mixture and add some bone meal or a slow-release fertiliser.

TIP: Do not plant the same seedlings into the same beds year after year as this can cause soil borne fungal diseases and will deplete the soil of nutrients. This is especially relevant for seedlings like petunia, pansy and viola.

With the wide selection of beautiful bedding plants available to South African gardeners, there is no excuse not to have a beautiful flowering garden all year round. The list below should inspire you to incorporate a fresh ‘new look’ in your garden every season, by using different colour schemes and plant varieties. Combine this with the fast-maturing versatility of annuals, and your garden can become a canvas, and you an artist!

African Daisy Picture courtesy Scot ParrishAfrican or Namaqualand Daisies are hardy water-wise annuals which are hardy to even severe frost. They love full sun, and grow quickly to about 35cm tall. Their flowers are so prolific that the leaves are almost invisible when the blooms appear; and they are available in the traditional bright orange and yellow flowers, as well as in many pastel shades and pure white. Sow them in masse into large beds, rockeries or borders for hassle-free colour. These easy to grow annuals are sown directly into garden beds in autumn when the soil temperatures have dropped significantly.

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Aquilegia F1 Hybrid. Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaAquilegias grow in semi-shade to sun and are hardy to frost but are not suited to humid or very dry regions. They remain firm favourites to plant in shade gardens and flower in late spring and summer. Their attractive fern-like leaves are a perfect foil for the exotic- looking flowers, which are available in shades of pink, red, blue, violet, rose and burgundy, white, yellow and orange. There are compact, dwarf varieties which grow +-20cm tall; and larger varieties which vary from +-40 to 75cm tall. Plant them in mixed flower borders, or behind spring flowering bulbs for a delicate contrast. The dwarf varieties are perfect for planting in pots and window boxes.

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Alyssum mixedAlyssum is hardy to frost and available in lovely in shades of pink, rose, purple, mauve, white, and yellow. It grows best in full sun but takes light shade. New varieties are very compact; growing +-15cm tall. They are ideal edging plants and great in hanging baskets, mixed with other annuals. Their tiny seeds can be sown directly into well-prepared garden beds or seedling trays.

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Bellis Habanera. Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaBellis or English Daisies grow well throughout the country provided they are watered well in dry regions. They are hardy to frost and will grow +-10 to 15cm tall, in semi-shade to full sun. They are loved for their double daisy flowers in all shades of pink to rose, scarlet and white. They grow easily in pots and make excellent border and bedding plants. Seeds can be sown directly into well-prepared garden beds or seedling trays in autumn.

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Bokbaai Vygie. Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaBokbaai Vygies are compact, low-growing plants +-15cm tall, which thrive in very hot beds in full sun. They are water-wise, grow well in poor soils, and are hardy to frost. Vygies are unrivalled for their multitude of dazzling, brightly coloured flowers; and if planted in massed beds, make a striking groundcover or border plant. They are also perfect to use in hanging baskets and containers of all kinds. Seeds are sown directly into well-prepared garden beds in autumn.

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Canterbury Bells. Picture courtesy Ann SonghurstCanterbury Bells are hardy to frost and grow in sun or light shade. They are not suited to very hot, dry, or humid regions. Plants vary in height from 90 to 120cm, depending on the variety; and their tall flower spikes and bell-shaped flowers come in a lovely range of colours; from purple to violet, blue, lavender, pink and white; and last long in a vase. They are essential in cottage gardens and an excellent backdrop for the flower bed. They do well if sown in late summer and autumn, to flower in spring or early summer. Seeds are sown directly into well-prepared garden beds or trays.

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Calendula 'Yellow' Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaCalendulas grow quickly, germinate easily, are hardy to all but extremely severe frost, and will grow in full sun or light shade. They produce large, single or double flowers that last long in a vase. The clear, bright colours are orange to apricot orange and golden to lemon yellow. Both dwarf and tall strains are available, varying in height from +-20 to 75cm tall, but the dwarf varieties are the most freely available. They are ideal for beds, borders and containers. The large seeds are sown directly into garden beds in autumn.

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Chrysanthemum paludosum. Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaChrysanthemums like C. paludosum with its small white daisy flowers and golden central discs; or C. multicaule with its charming yellow daisy flowers are both hardy to moderate frost and grow in full sun or semi-shade. Because they only grow +-20cm tall, they make good edging, bedding or border plants, and also grow well in hanging baskets and other containers, mixed with other flowering annuals. They can be sown almost throughout the year, directly into garden beds or seedling trays.

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Dwarf Cineraria. Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaCinerarias are tender to frost and thrive in semi-shade. They grow well in the winter rainfall regions and are not suited to very dry or humid areas. When in full bloom the plant is almost completely covered by immense clusters of velvety, daisy-like flowers in many vibrant colours like blue, purple, lilac, white, pink and rose. Both single colours and bicoloured strains are available, as well as dwarf and tall varieties. Seeds can be sown in seedling trays in late summer.

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Cornflower. Picture courtesy Stig MadsenCornflowers love full sun and are hardy to frost. They bloom prolifically in late winter and spring, and their rich shades of blue are much sought after, both for garden decoration and for the cut-flower industry. Garden varieties normally include shades of pink, red, lilac and white. They are a must-have for flower beds in cottage or wild meadow gardens. Seeds can be sown directly into garden beds or in seedling trays in autumn.

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Delphinium 'Magic Fountains Mixed' Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaDelphiniums do not like humidity and very dry regions. They are hardy to frost and can be planted in full sun to semi-shade. Delphiniums vary in height from +-75cm to 1.8m tall and are truly the ‘queens’ of the flower border, with their tall, striking upright flower spikes in exquisite shades of blue, lavender, pink and white, all with contrasting white or dark centres. Seeds can be sown directly into garden beds or seedling trays, in autumn or spring.

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Diathus Mixed. Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaDianthus are hardy to frost and grow well throughout South Africa for most of the year, but are not suitable for very humid regions. Plant them in full sun where they will grow +-15 to 20cm tall. These dwarf, compact carnations are grown for the classical beauty of their flowers, and come in many shades of pink, red, violet and white; are available in clear colours as well as bi-colours; and last well in a vase. Use it as a border plant or in containers. Seeds can be sown into seedling trays in autumn or spring.

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Foxglove 'Camalot Lavender' Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaFoxgloves grow best in regions with high rainfall and are hardy to frost; but are not suited to very humid or hot, dry regions. The varieties vary in height, but most of the modern strains are compact and grow +-60 to 90cm tall.  Their velvety flowers last long in a vase and have marbled markings in all shades of white, yellow, cream, lavender, rose and red. Because of their tall, striking flower spikes they are invaluable in woodland gardens and shady flower beds. Seed can be sown in seedling trays in autumn or spring, to bloom in spring and summer.

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Godetia. Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaGodetias are easy to grow in full sun and are hardy to frost, but are not suited to hot humid regions. Dwarf and tall varieties are available which vary in height from +-30 to 90cm tall. They are excellent cut-flowers; producing satiny cup-shaped blooms in shades of rose to pink and peach, lavender and white; darkening at the base or shading to white or red. These are popular cool season annuals will flower in late spring and early to mid-summer, depending on when they are sown, but because they prefer cooler weather are generally sown directly into garden beds in autumn.

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Iceland Poppies. Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaIceland Poppies will brighten up even the coldest winter day. They love full sun, are hardy to frost and grow well throughout South Africa, except for those very dry regions. They vary slightly in height from +-30 to 45cm. These popular cut flowers are available in bright and pastel shades of red, pink, yellow, orange, cream and white, as well as bicoloured varieties. Because poppies do not like undue disturbance, seeds are best sown directly into well-prepared garden beds. If you do sow them in seedling trays, transplant them into the garden as soon as they are strong enough, not allowing them to grow too large in the trays.

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Enchantment Linaria. Picture courtesy Ball Horticultural CompanyLinaria or Baby Snapdragons are hardy plants that love full sun and grow well throughout South Africa. The varieties vary slightly in height from +-20 to 35cm tall and produce clusters of tiny snapdragon flowers in a rainbow mixture of red, pink, yellow, purple, blue and white. They look best when sown in large clumps and make a beautiful addition to the mixed flower border; and also grow easily in pots. Seeds are sown directly into well prepared garden beds in spring or autumn. In regions that experience severe frost, it is best to sow them in spring and early summer.

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Lobelia 'Sky Blue' Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaLobelias can be grown almost throughout the year in South Africa in full sun or semi-shade; and are semi-hardy to moderate frost. They produce a profusion of tiny flowers in shades of light and dark blue, lilac, purple, pink, carmine and white. Some varieties have bronzy foliage and others bright green leaves. Modern varieties are compact and grow +-15cm tall, and there are also cascading ones, making them perfect for hanging baskets as well as borders. Seeds are sown into seedling trays in autumn or spring.

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Lupins. Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaLupins are hardy to moderate frost and love full sun. They are not suited to very hot, dry or humid regions. These unusual plants produce long-stemmed spikes, 60 to 80cm tall, bearing pea-shaped flowers in shades of yellow, white, rose, lilac and blue. Lupins are eye-catching when planted in large groups. They are excellent cut-flowers and both the flowers and berries are used by florists. Seed can be sown directly into garden beds in spring or late summer.

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Mimulus 'Magic Mixed' Picture courtesy www.ballstraathof.co.zaMonkey Flowers are moisture loving plants that thrive in semi-shade, and grow +-30cm tall. Because they are tender to frost, they are generally grown as summer annuals in South Africa; but in warmer regions they can be planted all year round. Their gay flowers are available in single or mixed shades of bright scarlet, pink, white, yellow, ivory, and orange. They are perfect planted into hanging baskets and pots, or as a border to the flower garden. Seeds are sown into seedling trays in spring or autumn.

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Sundrops mix Nemesia. Picture courtesy Ball Horticultural CompanyNemesias grow best in regions with mild winters but are semi-hardy to frost if planted in a protected position in the garden. They are not suited to hot, humid regions. Their spectacular little snapdragon-like flowers come in intense colours like gold, yellow, orange, rose, pink, peach, red and white. Nemesias grow quickly to +-30cm tall and look beautifully in containers, borders, and in massed displays. Seeds can be sown in trays or directly into well-prepared garden beds in autumn.

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Ornamental Kale. Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaOrnamental Kale loves full sun and is completely hardy to cold and frost, with the colourful pigmentations only appearing after prolonged cold weather and frosts. This is a fun plant if you want something a bit different to add impact to your garden. It grows +-30cm tall and the foliage can be plain or ruffled, and is available in white, pink, purple, or red. Ornamental kale looks spectacular if planted in large groups, and also does well in containers. Seeds can be sown into trays or directly into garden beds.

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Pansy 'Designer Pastel Mixed' Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaPansies and Violas are hardy to frost, but do not like humidity. They vary in height from +-15 to 20cm and are timeless favourites, which come in a staggering range of bright or pastel shades; including pink, blue, yellow, gold, orange, purple, violet, red, russet, white and even black. They are available in clear single shades as well as bi-colours; and are perfect planted in hanging baskets and borders. Seeds are best sown in seedling trays in late summer to early autumn.

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Schizanthus. Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaPoor Man's Orchids grow well throughout South Africa, except in regions that experience severe frost. They enjoy cool, yet sunny positions; in cool regions plant them in sun to light shade; and in hotter regions in semi-shade. Hybrids vary from +-20 to 40cm tall and produce a profusion of cut flowers in colours like pink, blue, violet, lavender, magenta, white, yellow, orange, gold, red and salmon. They are excellent border plants; and bloom best when their roots are restricted, making them great in containers. Seeds are sown in seed trays in late summer.

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Primula acaulis mixed. Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaPrimula acaulis or Common Primroses grow about 12cm tall and thrive in semi shade. They are hardy to frost but will not tolerate heat. This primrose flowers profusely and is grown for its intensely coloured flowers in every colour except green. Plant them into pots, window boxes and hanging baskets, or use them as a border to the shady flower garden. They also combine beautifully with spring flowering bulbs. Seeds can be sown into seedling trays in autumn.

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Primula malacoides. Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaPrimula malacoides or Fairy Primroses are hardy to moderate frost, but do not like high humidity. Plant them in semi-shade where they will grow +-30cm tall. They remain firm favourites with gardeners for their masses of delicate flowers in delightful shades of lilac, purple, pink, carmine-red and white. They grow beautifully in window boxes, hanging baskets and pots in shady areas; and their delicate flowers make a striking edging plant and put on a brilliant show if displayed in massed flowerbeds. Seeds can be sown in seedling trays or very well-prepared garden beds in late summer and autumn.

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Primula obconica. Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaPrimula obconica or German Primroses are semi-hardy to frost if planted in a protected position outdoors, but they will not tolerate heat. Plant them in semi-shade where they will grow +-20cm tall. These small growing plants are like miniature floral bouquets with their clusters of flowers in a rainbow of colours, from yellows and oranges, to red, pink, lilac, blue, purple and white. They flower profusely and do well in pots, window boxes and hanging baskets, or as a border to the shady flower garden. Seeds can be sown in seedling trays in late summer and autumn.

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Petunia mixed. Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaPetunias can be planted almost all year round in South Africa and are semi-hardy to moderate frost, but do not like high humidity. They love full sun and varieties vary in height and spread, so check carefully before making your selection.  They are available in a wide range of colours, from fiery reds, burgundy and purples, to all shades of pink, lilac, blue, yellow, black and white.  If planted in mass, petunias will provide brilliant colour for months on end. Use the cascading varieties in containers and the compact varieties in the garden.  Seeds are best sown into seedling trays. 

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Phlox 21st Century. Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaPhlox can be grown almost throughout the year in South Africa, but does best in the cooler season. They can be planted in full sun to light shade and are hardy to all but severe frost. In humid regions they are planted in autumn. The new compact varieties will grow quickly to about 25cm tall; and produce large clusters of delicate blooms in many pastel and bright shades of red, pink, coral, blue, lilac, purple and white. Use them in flower borders or in containers. Seed can be sown in autumn or spring into seedling trays.

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Antirrhinum Dwarf Mixed. Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaSnapdragons love full sun and are hardy to frost. Dwarf and tall varieties are available in nearly every flower colour, or bicolour; including red, bronze, yellow, orange, pink, purple, cream, and white. The short varieties are wonderful edging plants and grow well in containers; taller varieties mix beautifully with other plants in the flower border. Seed and can be sown in trays or directly into garden beds almost throughout the year in South Africa. 

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Stocks. Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaStocks are among our oldest and dearly-loved garden flowers and are grown throughout South Africa in winter and spring. They love full sun and are hardy to frost. These cut flowers have a sweet perfume at night and come in shades of pink, mauve, crimson, purple, cream, yellow, peach and white. Both dwarf and tall varieties are available, ranging in height from +-30 to 70cm. Stocks are invaluable in the flower border and the dwarf varieties are easy to grow in containers. Seeds are sown into seedling trays in late summer.

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Sweetpeas. Picture courtesy www.nuleaf.co.zaSweetpeas are highly scented cut-flowers that bring cheer to any winter's day. They are hardy to moderate frost and grow well throughout South Africa, except for those extremely cold regions. In very cold regions, where the weather remains cool during spring and early summer, late flowering varieties can be sown in spring to flower in early summer. Climbers will grow +-2m tall and bush varieties vary in height from 30 to 90cm. Try planting the dwarf varieties in pots, hanging baskets and window boxes, or as a border to the flower garden. Grow the climbing varieties up a protected, sunny wall or fence. Seed can be sown directly into garden beds or into seedling trays.

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Sweet William. Picture courtesy Karina BjorkSweet William remains an old-fashioned summer flowering favourite which is prized for its sweetly-scented, long-lasting cut-flowers, in lovely shades of pink, rose, red, purple and white, and sometimes bicoloured with fringed petals. Newer varieties have been bred to flower in the first year from seed; seed that is sown into trays in late spring and summer will take about 15 to 17 weeks to flower, and seed sown in late summer and autumn will take 17 to 22 weeks to flower. There are both tall and dwarf varieties which vary in height from +-15 to 60cm tall. This lovely bedding or border plant is used in cottage gardens; perennial flower borders; and grows well in containers.

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Broad BeansThe usual planting time for a winter garden is March, April and May.

Try to select a sheltered spot in the garden to grow your vegetables; hot drying summer winds and freezing cold winter winds could destroy your crops. This can be achieved by planting windbreaks, building walls, or installing cold frames around your plants.

Sacred bamboo (Nandina domestica) is not bamboo, despite its common name, and does not spread like bamboo. It makes an excellent windbreak; and the tall straight stems also make surprisingly strong and long lasting plant stakes if they are cut right down to the ground and allowed to dry out.  The height and spread of this beautiful shrub can also be controlled by pruning. Other smaller plants and herbs like rosemary are also suitable as windbreaks.

Most vegetables, and especially winter ones, need plenty of sunshine, good well drained soil, and regular watering. It is vital to prepare the beds thoroughly about 2 weeks before planting, incorporating lots of compost and a generous dressing of bone meal, plus a balanced organic fertiliser.

In acid soils a dressing of agricultural lime can be added. Look out for worm pellets, called vermicomposting, or volcanic rock dust, which also work especially well with vegetables.

Once the soil temperatures have dropped significantly you can start planting out your first seedlings into the garden. Try to do this early in the morning, and water thoroughly afterwards.

Successive Sowing

For the average family garden it is best to plant out smaller quantities of vegetables at regular intervals during the growing season, rather than planting too much all at once. Successive sowing and planting will ensure a more continuous harvest of crops, rather than a huge quantity all at once.

Remember to plant larger growing varieties of vegetables on the south side of your vegetable garden where they will still benefit from plenty of winter sunshine, but where they will not overshadow smaller growing crops.

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Kohlrabi. Picture courtesy Katherina MillerCold Regions

Autumn is knocking at the door, and on the Highveld there is a slight nip in the air early in the morning and in the evening. You need to sow your winter vegetables this month so that the plants can mature before it gets really freezing cold in June and July; you should try to get at least 6 to 8 weeks of good growth on your winter veggies before the major frosts come, anything less and your plants will struggle over the really cold period.

If you live in a region which receives early frosts, for slower maturing varieties like broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage and cauliflower, it may be worth your while to purchase trays of established seedlings from your garden centre. In cold regions June and July are not good months to sow seeds.

Warm Frost Free Areas

In warm frost free areas, most winter crops, and also many summer crops can be planted throughout winter. In these warmer regions, continue to sow seeds of vegetables that you can plant out into the garden once the weather cools down.

In sub-tropical regions March is the last month to plant onions, and April is the last month to plant green peppers. Otherwise, cabbage, spinach, beetroot, tomato, beans, peas, coriander, rocket, chillies, carrot, lettuce, gem squash and butternut can all still be planted.

Although lettuce, spinach, cabbage, mustard greens, kale and turnips grow best in cooler weather, there are varieties of each that are more tolerant of cold, or warm temperatures, than others. Heat-tolerant varieties which are slower to bolt or produce a seed stalk are grown in the summer months and are more suitable for subtropical regions. For this reason it is very important to purchase seeds from a reputable garden centre which will have the correct varieties for your region on their shelves, at the correct time of the year.

Raised BedsGrowing vegetables in raised beds

Growing vegetables in raised beds works well for organic gardeners, in both small and large gardens. Because they offer better drainage, they are also recommended for heavy clay soils. Space can also be used more effectively and a good soil structure is easy to obtain. Because there is no soil compaction from walking over the beds, less digging over is required.

Plants in raised beds receive more sun and air circulation, and because they can raise the temperature of the soil inside the bed by quite a few degrees in winter, warm up early in the spring, and stay warm later in autumn, raised beds allow you to plant earlier and harvest for longer. Mulching the beds in cold regions will help to retain heat in winter, and will keep the roots of crops cooler in summer.

Click here to read my full article on growing vegetables in raised beds

Square Foot Vegetable Gardening

To save space in smaller veggie patches it is best to plant crops in small squares, rather than in long rows. Click here to read my article on this fascinating subject.

Protect your newly planted seedlings

To protect your newly planted seedlings, collect and cut the bottoms out of plastic cooldrink bottles and bury these in the ground over the newly planted seedlings. Bottles with screw tops work extremely well, and leaving the screw top off the bottle will protect the seedlings from extreme weather like hail, while still allowing air flow around the plants.

Yogurt tubs also work extremely well, and the lids can be put on if bad weather is expected, and removed later.

These techniques are easy to do in small veggie patches and well worth the effort as they are excellent to keep cats and small dogs from scratching around your plants, and also help protect against some pests.

Once your veggies are planted, water and feed them regularly so that they can become well established before winter really sets in.

Growing your own vegetables can be most rewarding and a lot of fun, but remember not to bite off more than you can chew, and don’t despair if you have a few failures – this is all part of the learning curve. You will soon learn which varieties do best in your garden and how much to sow for your family’s needs. Once you “get the hang of it”, your veggie garden will be overflowing with delicious home grown, organic produce.

See under Medium-sized Plants

All the Flaxes are on one page, so please Click Here to read under Medium-sized plants

Phormium 'Flamingo' Picture courtesy www.kazimingi.co.zaCondensed Version:

New Zealand flax is excellent architectural specimen with a striking geometric shape; and the hybrids have intriguingly coloured foliage. They are all wonderful for low maintenance flower and shrub borders, as well as in gravel or rock gardens, or at the edge of a lawn. Use them in featured mass plantings, along roadsides, and in parks. They are also suitable to plant near buildings and in courtyards; and the smaller varieties grow beautifully in pots.

Phormium tenax and cookianum are hardy evergreens which tolerate heat, drought, frost, and temperatures as low as -5°C once established. They grow well throughout South Africa and are excellent coastal plants, but in humid regions require very well-drained soil. Although they are drought hardy, the plants look at their best if they are watered regularly during dry spells; this is especially important in the very hot and dry regions of the country. P. tenax will also grow in seasonally dry or wet soil.

Flaxes can be planted in full sun or semi-shade, and although they prefer a light (sandy) to medium (loamy) soil; will adapt to most well-drained garden soils, and even heavy (clay) soils with good drainage. They tolerate acid, as well as neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can be grown in saline (salty) soils.

The hybrids with their colourful leaves are usually less tolerant of extremely hot or cold temperatures, prolonged dry conditions and heavy clay soil. During hot and dry conditions sunburn can occur on the cultivars; but especially on those with weeping leaves, so it would be wise to use these cultivars in bright shade and where there is protection from the fierce midday sun. Cold temperatures are also likely to scald the leaves of these plants, and in extremely cold gardens they will need protection in winter, or they may be planted in containers which can be moved to a sheltered spot. These hybrids are nearly as drought resistant as the species, but look at their best in the garden if watered moderately during long dry spells. The upright growing cultivars of flax are less affected by these extremes in temperature and drought.

Phormium 'Dazzler' Picture courtesy www.steyns-nursery.co.zaFull Version:

Description, History & Interesting Facts:

Flax is endemic (restricted in the wild) to New Zealand and Norfolk Island,  and there are two confirmed species in New Zealand; Phormium tenax and Phormium cookianum. What is commonly called the Coastal Flax (Phormium tenax) is the larger and more common plant in cultivation, with rigid, upright leaves, from 1 to 3 metres in length. The Mountain Flax (Phormium cookianum) is a smaller, more graceful plant, with drooping leaves which are less than 2 metres in length.

It was on Captain Cook's second expedition to the South Pacific in 1773 that Phormium tenax was first collected. It was probably one of the first plants documented upon landing, as it is very common and can be found on the beach, in river mouths, on coastal cliffs and along alpine lakes. Phormium cookianum was discovered later and named by in 1848 by Auguste Francois Le Jolis. In 1864 the name Phormium colensoi was applied to what is now properly called Phormium cookianum ssp. hookeri. Many continue to reference P. cookianum as P. colensoi.

New Zealand Flax was cultivated on Saint Helena from the late 1800s to around 1966 for the production of string and rope. Today the plants remain but the industry has stopped; and these plants are now considered to be an ecological problem. Flax is also an invasive species in some of the Pacific islands and in Australia.

In Māori sayings and songs, flax is often a metaphor for family bonds and human relationships. It is also a national emblem, and is used in logos for local and government organisations. Although New Zealand Flax has been exported to many countries worldwide, it is a plant that many New Zealanders associate strongly with their homeland. When the plants bloom nectar eating birds and insects flock to them. Their foliage is a favourite with florists; and the tall flowering stems with their bean-like fruits are great to use in dried floral arrangements.

Phormium rubra 'Nana' Picture courtesy www.kazimingi.co.zaCoastal Flax, Giant New Zealand Flax, Swamp Flax, Harakeke (Phormium tenax)

Coastal Flax is a fast growing evergreen, clump-forming perennial, native to New Zealand and Norfolk Island, and which can commonly be found growing wild in lowland swamps and intermittently flooded land. It forms a clump of erect, rigid, sword-shaped, bright green leaves and grows +-1.5 to 2.5m tall and +-1.5 to 2.5m wide. Leaf margins and midribs are narrowly edged with red-orange. Bronze and purple leaved varieties are available, with a number of cultivars featuring variegated leaves, striped or edged with green, cream, chocolate brown, pink, red, orange or purple. The flowers appear in summer, are dark red and held upright on a tall stalk above the foliage.

(Phormium tenax 'Atropurpureum')

'Atropurpureum' has strongly vertical burgundy-bronze leaves, and grows +-1.5 to 2m tall with an equal spread.

(Phormium tenax 'Lineata')

'Lineata' has wide, rigidly upright green leaves with narrow creamy stripes running vertically through the leaves. It grows +-2m tall with an equal spread.

(Phormium tenax 'Variegatum')

'Variegatum' has beautifully banded green and creamy yellow leaves. This rigidly upright grower can reach +- 1.2 to 1.8m tall with an equal spread.  

(Phormium tenax 'Nana Variegatum’)

'Nana Variegatum’ is a lovely dwarf variety with green leaves, striped with white and yellow. It grows +- 80cm to 1m tall with an equal spread.

(Phormium tenax 'Rubra')

'Rubra' grows +-1 to 1.2m tall and +-75cm to 1m wide and produces narrow, arching, reddish-chocolate-brown leaves.

(Phormium tenax ‘Rubra Nana')

‘Rubra Nana' is a lovely dwarf variety which only grows +-40 to 60cm tall and 30 to 40cm wide; and produces gorgeous, narrow, reddish-chocolate-brown leaves.

(Phormium tenax ‘Baby Bronze’)

‘Baby Bronze’ has attractive bronze-brown to green leaves which arch over at the tips. It grows +-30cm tall and 30cm wide, but can double its size with maturity.

(Phormium tenax ‘Baby Green’)

‘Baby Green’ has green leaves with bronze edges which arch over at the tips. It grows +-30cm tall and 30cm wide, but can double its size with maturity.

Phormium 'Yellow Waves' Picture courtesy www.steyns-nursery.co.zaMountain Flax, Wharariki (Phormium cookianum)

Mountain Flax is a fast growing, evergreen, clump-forming perennial native to New Zealand. It has two distinct geographic forms, one occurring in lowland parts of the North Island, and the other in the southern and mountainous areas of the South Island, as well as ranges in the North Island. In the Cook Strait area, both forms and intermediates can be found. It grows +-1.2 to 2m tall and 90cm to 1m wide, and has softer, shorter leaves than P. tenax, pruducing greenish flowers in summer, often with yellow or orange tones, held horizontally on an arching flower stalk up to 2m in height. Numerous forms of this species have been selected for cultivation and many beautiful cultivars are available to gardeners.

(Phormium cookianum ‘Flamingo’)

‘Flamingo’ has an upright, arching habit, and pink striped leaves which also display shades of orange, green and yellow. It grows +-60cm to 1m tall with an equal spread.

(Phormium cookianum ‘Yellow Wave’)

‘Yellow Wave’ has gracefully arching yellow leaves with green edges and grows +-70cm to 1m tall, but with maturity can reach 1.2 to 1.5m tall with an equal spread.

(Phormium cookianum ‘Cream Delight’)

‘Cream Delight’ has erect leaves with drooping tips and beautiful creamy yellow bands on the leaves. It grows +-50cm to 1m tall with an equal spread, but with maturity can reach 1.5m.

(Phormium cookianum ‘Pink Stripe’)

‘Pink Stripe’ is also sometimes called ‘Candy Stripe’ and has wide bronze-green (almost grey) leaves edged with pink. It grows +-1.5m tall and 1.3m wide, but with maturity can reach 2m tall with an equal or greater spread.

Phormium 'Jester' Picture courtesy www.steyns-nursery.co.zaGorgeous Phormium garden hybrids include:

(Phormium hybrid ‘Dazzler’)

‘Dazzler’ is compact with a weeping form and dark purple arching leaves, heavily striped with red to pinkish-red. It grows +-75cm tall with an equal spread.

(Phormium hybrid ‘Jester’)

‘Jester’ has bright green foliage striped with a wide, hot-pink central band; and grows +-1m tall and 1m wide.

(Phormium hybrid ‘Apricot Queen’)

‘Apricot Queen’ has a beautiful upright-growth habit with yellow foliage edged in green; its leaves turn apricot with age and cold weather. This dwarf grows +- 80cm to 1m tall and 60cm to 1m wide.

(Phormium hybrid ‘Margaret Jones’)

‘Margaret Jones’ has gorgeous striped rose-red leaves with bronze edges; and grows +-60cm to 1m tall.

(Phormium hybrid ‘Parfait' var. Tango)

‘Parfait' var. Tango has truly beautiful foliage with green edges and shades of pink in the centre.

(Phormium hybrid 'Amazing Red')

'Amazing Red' has an upright growth habit and produces narrow dark reddish-brown leaves that curve downward at the tips. It grows +-80cm tall and 60cm wide.

(Phormium hybrid 'Chocolate' TM var. Jack Spratt)

'Chocolate' produces lovely narrow, soft chocolate-brown leaves; and grows +-40cm tall and 30cm wide.  

(Phormium hybrid 'Dusky Chief')

'Dusky Chief' has an upright growth habit and striking maroon-red to purple. It grows +-1.2m tall and 80cm wide.

(Phormium hybrid 'Pink Panther')

'Pink Panther' has stunning red-pink leaves with deep red edges. It grows +-80cm tall and 50cm wide.

(Phormium hybrid 'Rainbow Maiden')

'Rainbow Maiden' has upright growing leaves which droop at the tips. The foliage has lovely rich salmon-pink centres and coral-red variegations. It grows +-90cm tall and 50cm wide.

(Phormium hybrid 'Rainbow Queen'

'Rainbow Queen' has broad upright growing leaves which droop at the tips. The foliage lovely is a lovely bronze-green with rose-red stripes. It grows +-1.2m tall and 80cm wide.

(Phormium hybrid 'Rainbow Sunrise')

'Rainbow Sunrise' has bronze foliage with red and pink variegations, tending to be pinker in the centre. It grows +-80cm tall and 50cm wide.

(Phormium hybrid 'Rosie Chameleon')

'Rosie Chameleon' has wine-red leaves with fine bronze shading in the centre and bronze edges. In autumn and winter the wine red leaves can change to yellow. It grows +-40cm tall and 30cm wide.

Phormium nana 'Variegata' Picture courtesy www.kazimingi.co.zaUses:

Today their foliage is a favourite with florists; and the tall flowering stems with their bean-like fruits are great to use in dried floral arrangements.

Phormium tenax had many uses in traditional Māori society, with the split leaves being used to make sails, woven baskets, nets, cloaks, sandals, straps etc. but most of these have fallen into disuse and its primary use today is for the weaving of kete (flax baskets). A very high quality pliable fibre is obtained from the leaves of flax which is used in the manufacture of fine cloth and paper. The leaves can also be made into twine, but this is not very strong. The leaves are harvested in summer, scraped to remove the outer skin, and then soaked in water for 2 hours prior to cooking. The fibres are then cooked for 24 hours with lye and then beaten in a ball mill for 4 hours.

The roasted seed can be used as a coffee substitute, and healthy, edible nectar is obtained from the flowers. The leaf pulp, after the fibre has been removed, can be fermented to make alcohol. An edible gum is obtained from the leaves and is also used as paper glue. Brown dye is obtained from the flowers and terracotta coloured dye is obtained from the seedpods.

The roots can be crushed to make poultices for skin infections, and to produce a juice with disinfectant and laxative properties. The gum from the base of the leaves was used to ease pain and heal wounds, especially burns. The leaves themselves could be used as bandages and to secure broken bones.

In the Garden:

An excellent architectural specimen, New Zealand flax has a striking geometric shape and the hybrids have intriguingly coloured foliage. They are all wonderful for low maintenance flower and shrub borders, as well as in gravel or rock gardens, or at the edge of a lawn. Use them in featured mass plantings, along roadsides, and in parks. They are also suitable to plant near buildings and in courtyards; and the smaller varieties grow beautifully in pots.

Phormium rubra Picture courtesy www.kazimingi.co.zaCultivation:

Phormium tenax and cookianum are hardy evergreens which tolerate heat, drought, frost, and temperatures as low as -5°C once established. They grow well throughout South Africa and are excellent coastal plants, but in humid regions require very well-drained soil. Although they are drought hardy, the plants look at their best if they are watered regularly during dry spells; this is especially important in the very hot and dry regions of the country. P. tenax will also grow in seasonally dry or wet soil.

Flaxes can be planted in full sun or semi-shade, and although they prefer a light (sandy) to medium (loamy) soil; will adapt to most well-drained garden soils, and even heavy (clay) soils with good drainage. They tolerate acid, as well as neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can be grown in saline (salty) soils.

The hybrids with their colourful leaves are usually less tolerant of extremely hot or cold temperatures, prolonged dry conditions and heavy clay soil, so check with your local garden centre for the best varieties for your region. During hot and dry conditions sunburn can occur on the cultivars; but especially on those with weeping leaves, so it would be wise to use these cultivars in bright shade and where there is protection from the fierce midday sun. Cold temperatures are also likely to scald the leaves of these plants, and in extremely cold gardens they will need protection in winter, or they may be planted in containers which can be moved to a sheltered spot. These hybrids are nearly as drought resistant as the species, but look at their best in the garden if watered moderately during long dry spells. The upright growing cultivars are less affected by these extremes in temperature and drought.

Remove dead or damaged leaves as required, and divide and split large specimens in spring, if necessary. The colourful leaf forms of some of the beautiful hybrid flaxes have a tendency to revert back to a green or bronze colour; so whenever you notice a shoot with an unwanted colour, cut it out immediately, right at the base of the plant. With some of the hybrids the new foliage is the showiest, and some gardeners prefer to remove most, or all of the older leaves as the new ones emerge.

When planting flax, ensure that the crown or base of the plant is not below soil level. Use a slow release fertiliser in spring if required.

Propagation:

Flax can be propagated from seed or by dividing off small fans of leaves and planting them directly in the soil.

Pests & Diseases:

Phormium plants suffer from few maladies, but watch out for mealy bugs, which can be controlled through sprays; and snails and slugs that often use the underside of the leaves for an abode can be easily picked off or poisoned.

Warning:

The blades of the plant contain cucurbitacins, which are poisonous to some animals, and some of them are among the bitterest tastes to humans.

Flax is an invasive species in some of the Pacific islands and in Australia.